We measured the radiofrequency (RF) radiation at central parts in Stockholm, Sweden in March and April 2017. The same measurement round tour was used each time. We used EME Spy 200 for the measurements as in our previous studies in Stockholm. The results were based on 11,482 entries, corresponding to more than 12 h measurements. The total mean level was 5,494 µW/m2 (median 3,346; range 36.6–205,155). The major contributions were down links from LTE 800 (4G), GSM + UMTS 900 (3G), GSM 1800 (2G), UMTS 2100 (3G) and LTE 2600 (4G). Regarding different places, the highest RF radiation was measured at the Hay Market with a mean level of 10,728 µW/m2 (median 8,578; range 335–68,815). This is a square used for shopping, and both retailers and visitors may spend considerable time at this place. Also, the Sergel Plaza had high radiation with a mean of 7,768 µW/m2. All measurements exceeded the target level of 30–60 µW/m2 based on non-thermal (no heating) effects, according to the BioInitiative Report. Based on short-term thermal effects, The International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection established guideline 2 of 10 W/m2 (2,000,000–10,000,000 µW/m2) depending on frequency in 1998, and has not changed it despite solid evidence of non-thermal biological effects at substantially lower exposure levels. These environmental RF radiation levels are expected to increase with the introduction of 5G for wireless communication.
Our research team has during the recent years made measurements of radiofrequency (RF) radiation at the Central Station (
These results give an estimate of RF radiation levels before the introduction of the fifth generation, 5G, for wireless communication. During the time for all these measurements no 5G was implemented. Despite an EU appeal by more than 200 scientists and medical doctors asking for a moratorium on the introduction of 5G until further independent research on consequences on health and environment are performed, there seems to be no plans to halt the building of that network (
Apart from the cancer risk from exposure to RF radiation, several studies show other possible adverse health effects in inhabitants living near mobile base station. Symptoms like headache, fatigue, dizziness, sleep disturbances, cardiovascular symptoms, depression and difficulties with concentration and memory have been reported (
A biological mechanism for exposure to RF radiation and possible harmful effects can be the stimulation of oxidative stress. A study showed lower values of antioxidant levels and a higher mean level of lipid peroxidation assay as a sign for increased free radicals in a study population living near mobile phone base stations (
This study forms part of our on-going measurements of RF radiation in public places. Of special interest is places with many visitors but also including areas with persons working for several hours per day. This was a measurement study with no involvement of test persons. Thus, no ethical permission was needed.
In this study an EME Spy 200 exposimeter with a valid calibration was used to collect the exposure data. Axial isotropy is from ± 1 to ± 2.8 dB depending on the frequency band. The measurement accuracy is very good relative to this type of measurements and the measurement errors are not biologically significant. The exposimeter measures 20 predefined frequency bands as presented in
The exposimeter measures different telecommunications protocols: FM (frequency modulation) radio broadcasting; TV (television) broadcasting; TETRA emergency services (police, rescue, etc.); GSM (global system for mobile communications) second generation mobile communications; UMTS (universal mobile telecommunications systems) third generation mobile communications, 3G; LTE (long term evolution) fourth generation mobile communications standard, 4G; DECT (digital European cordless telecommunications) cordless telephone systems standard; Wi-Fi wireless local area network protocol; WIMAX (worldwide interoperability for microwave access) wireless communication standard for high speed voice, data and Internet.
EME SPY 200 utilizes 3-axis antennas to capture RF radiation from all possible directions and polarizations. The exposimeter was held at some distance (approximately 0.4 meters) from the body. The unit reports the exposure in a conservative manner since each reported value is the sampling outcome, where many samples are taken and statistically processed including minimum, mean, median and maximum values.
All measurements were performed during March and April 2017. Each measurement tour started at Stureplan, Stockholm that is a common place for visitors, see
Means in µW/m2 were calculated for all measured frequency bands and a box plot was constructed to illustrate the distribution of total exposure for all measurement locations. Values at lower detection limit were treated as no (0) exposure. Total exposure was calculated as the sum of all measured frequency bands. Stata/SE 12.1 (Stata/SE 12.1 for Windows; StataCorp., College Station, TX, USA) was used for all calculations.
The results were based on 11,482 entries in total corresponding to more than 12 h of measurements, see
As shown in
Also the Sergel Plaza had a high mean level, 7,768 µW/m2 (median 6,466, range 66.6–50,897),
As shown in
We made our first measurements with the EME Spy 200 Exposimeter at the Stockholm Central Station in November 2015 (
The next measurement included Stockholm Old Town in April 2016 (
We measured levels of RF-radiation in an apartment located at Östermalm, Stockholm. The results were based on 74,531 entries for 6 different tours in June and August 2017. Also, balconies were measured (
The aim of this article is not to discuss in more detail results from measurements of RF radiation levels in other countries. For a more comprehensive review see our previous publications (
In contrast, the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) based their target level on short-term (acute) exposure. It was established in 1998 (
Most areas in our current study are only used by people when passing by. Thus, the high involuntary exposure is for a short time. However, some of the streets are popular for visitors, those going for shopping or strolling along the street just for pleasure. This might give more extended exposure. One contrast is the Hay Market. This is popular place for marketing of flowers, fruits, berries, etc. Thus, the dealers may during the whole day be exposed to high RF radiation. The mean level was 10,728 µW/m2 which exceeds very much levels known to have biological effects.
The results of this study point out unnecessarily high RF radiation areas in several parts of Stockholm city. Using high-power levels causes an excess health risk to many people. Even higher RF radiation is expected when 5 G is implemented.
5G will use several different frequencies. According to The Swedish ‘Post and Telestyrelsen’ (The Swedish Post and Telecom Authority, PTS) the plan for 5G in Sweden is in the bands of 700 MHZ, 3.4–3.6 GHz and 26.5–27.5 GHz. These frequency have wavelengths of 428.6 mm, 88.2–83.3 mm and 11.3–10.9 mm, respectively. Super high frequencies, like 26.5–27.5 GHz have wavelengths in the millimeter scale, and are named millimeter waves (MMW). Millimeter waves have low penetration depth into the body. Primarily skin and ocular effects have been seen. MMW may have effects on nerve endings and capillaries in the skin and through them influence deeper structures and functions in the body (
RF radiation from mobile phone base station expose the environment day and night. Long duration of exposure to RF radiation can be an important factor in adverse health effects even with exposure at lower power densities (
The introduction of 5G will augment the total exposure and also the total amount of different frequencies that will expose the population. The total incidence of cancer is increasing in Sweden and daily papers often report about sleep disturbances, pain problems, burned-out syndromes, depression and more people on sick-leaves. There can be several different causes for this increase in ill health, but the population has never before been exposed to this amount of RF radiation. It does not seem to halt even with these levels of exposure since mobile phone industries and governments want to progress toward an even more digital and wireless world. More research is urgently needed to evaluate the exposure levels we already have and their possible medical consequences and the exposure levels we will get when 5G is implemented, see e.g. the 5G Appeal (
Not applicable.
The present study was supported by grants from Mr. Brian Stein, Cancer-och Allergifonden, Cancerhjälpen and the Pandora-Foundation for Independent Research, Berlin, Germany.
The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
LHa and TK collected all the measurements. MC performed the statistical calculations, LHe contributed with the review of medical aspects from mobile phone base station studies and TK was responsible for technical and methodological aspects of the study. All authors participated in the writing of the manuscript, and have read and approved the final version of the manuscript.
Not applicable.
Not applicable.
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Stockholm city measurement tour, marked by blue; map by Lantmäteriet, Sweden.
Box plot of total exposure in µW/m2, logarithmic scale, measurements 20170305-20170307, 20170413 and 20170416 in Stockholm city. The median is indicated by a black line inside each box; the bottom and top of the boxes show first and third quartiles; the end of the whiskers are calculated as 1.5× interquartile range. Points represent outliers. I, Stureplan; II, Biblioteksgatan, Norrmalmstorg, Hamngatan; III, Sergel Plaza; IV, Klarabergsgatan, Vasagatan, Tegelbacken, Rosenbad, Strömgatan to Drottninggatan; V, Drottninggatan to Kungsgatan; VI, Kungsgatan; VII, Hay Market.
Time variation of measurement at the Hay Market 20170416 (µW/m2 on a logarithmic scale; total mean exposure 13,763.8 µW/m2 in this measurement).
Predefined measurement frequency bands of EME Spy 200 Exposimeter. Frequency ranges.
Frequency band | Frequency Min, MHz | Frequency Max, MHz |
---|---|---|
FM | 88 | 107 |
TV3 | 174 | 223 |
TETRA I | 380 | 400 |
TETRA II | 410 | 430 |
TETRA III | 450 | 470 |
TV4 and 5 | 470 | 770 |
LTE 800, 4G (DL |
791 | 821 |
LTE 800, 4G (UL |
832 | 862 |
GSM 900+ UMTS 900, 3G (UL) | 880 | 915 |
GSM 900+ UMTS 900, 3G (DL) | 925 | 960 |
GSM 1800 (UL) | 1,710 | 1,785 |
GSM 1800 (DL) | 1,805 | 1,880 |
DECT | 1,880 | 1,900 |
UMTS 2100, 3G (UL) | 1,920 | 1,980 |
UMTS 2100, 3G (DL) | 2,110 | 2,170 |
Wi-Fi, 2 GHz | 2,400 | 2,483.5 |
LTE 2600, 4G (UL) | 2,500 | 2,570 |
LTE 2600, 4G (DL) | 2,620 | 2,690 |
WiMax | 3,300 | 3,900 |
Wi-Fi 5GHz | 5,150 | 5,850 |
Transmission from base station to mobile phone
Transmission from mobile phone to base station. FM, frequency modulation; TV, television; LTE, long-term evolution; DL, downlink (transmission from base station to mobile phone); UL, uplink (transmission from mobile phone to base station); GSM, global system for mobile communications; UMTS, universal mobile telecommunications system; DECT, digital European cordless telecommunications; WiMAX, worldwide interoperability for microwave access.
Stockholm city levels of radiofrequency radiation based on 11,482 entries, measurements 20170305–20170307, 20170413 and 20170416. Analysis of all data (µW/m2) treating values at detection limit as 0.
Frequency band | Mean | Median | Min | Max |
---|---|---|---|---|
FM | 3.6 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 4,224.5 |
TV3 | 0.6 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 317.5 |
TETRA I | 2.3 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 2,096.3 |
TETRA II | 1.4 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 554.0 |
TETRA III | 0.1 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 124.9 |
TV4 and 5 | 6.3 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 6,672.1 |
LTE 800 (DL) | 750.9 | 243.5 | 0.8 | 80,034.6 |
LTE 800 (UL) | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 4.0 |
GSM + UMTS 900 (UL) | 0.1 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 299.5 |
GSM + UMTS 900 (DL) | 1,169.5 | 583.5 | 2.2 | 95,522.5 |
GSM 1800 (UL) | 12.3 | 2.2 | 0.0 | 2,620.8 |
GSM 1800 (DL) | 465.0 | 189.1 | 1.9 | 44,393.3 |
DECT | 59.0 | 0.7 | 0.0 | 6,714.3 |
UMTS 2100 (UL) | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 10.5 |
UMTS 2100 (DL) | 1,211.5 | 598.5 | 5.9 | 43,852.4 |
WIFI 2G | 0.3 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 616.2 |
LTE 2600 (UL) | 32.1 | 5.1 | 0.0 | 3,762.5 |
LTE 2600 (DL) | 1,779.1 | 846.8 | 4.0 | 40,572.7 |
WIMax | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.8 |
WIFI 5G | 0.1 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 88.8 |
Total | 5,494.2 | 3,346.0 | 36.6 | 205,154.8 |
FM, frequency modulation; TV, television; LTE, long-term evolution; DL, downlink (transmission from base station to mobile phone); UL, uplink (transmission from mobile phone to base station); GSM, global system for mobile communications; UMTS, universal mobile telecommunications system; DECT, digital European cordless telecommunications; WiMAX, worldwide interoperability for microwave access.
Stockholm city total levels of radiofrequency radiation for different locations, measurements 20170305-20170307, 20170413 and 20170416. Analysis of all data (µW/m2) treating values at detection limit as 0.
Location | n | Mean | Median | Min | Max |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Stureplan | 696 | 2,664.7 | 1,816.0 | 158.9 | 33,678.6 |
Biblioteksgatan, Norrmalmstorg, Hamngatan | 2,473 | 5,000.4 | 3,477.9 | 36.6 | 53,681.2 |
Sergel plaza | 1,651 | 7,767.6 | 6,466.5 | 66.6 | 50,897.3 |
Klarabergsgatan, Vasagatan, Tegelbacken, Rosenbad, Strömgatan to Drottninggatan | 2,136 | 3,790.8 | 1,934.6 | 37.1 | 77,451.6 |
Drottninggatan to Kungsgatan | 1,661 | 4,257.4 | 2,708.3 | 132.6 | 205,154.8 |
Kungsgatan | 1,663 | 4,795.4 | 2,610.7 | 66.7 | 61,053.6 |
Hay market | 1,202 | 10,728.5 | 8,577.7 | 335.4 | 68,814.6 |
Total | 11,482 | 5,494.2 | 3,346.0 | 36.6 | 205,154.8 |
Hay Market, Stockholm, levels of radiofrequency radiation in total based on 1,202 entries. Analysis of all data (µW/m2) treating values at detection limit as 0.
Frequency band | Mean | Median | Min | Max |
---|---|---|---|---|
FM | 1.6 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 407.6 |
TV3 | 0.8 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 154.1 |
TETRA I | 1.1 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 1,244.6 |
TETRA II | 0.1 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 16.6 |
TETRA III | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 1.0 |
TV4 and 5 | 8.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 551.6 |
LTE 800 (DL) | 1,081.8 | 495.0 | 26.5 | 30,771.4 |
LTE 800 (UL) | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.1 |
GSM + UMTS 900 (UL) | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 25.5 |
GSM + UMTS 900 (DL) | 2,063.0 | 1,192.5 | 66.2 | 21,802.9 |
GSM 1800 (UL) | 15.3 | 3.2 | 0.0 | 1,120.7 |
GSM 1800 (DL) | 991.0 | 609.9 | 17.4 | 34,740.5 |
DECT | 95.2 | 14.3 | 0.0 | 3,756.2 |
UMTS 2100 (UL) | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 10.5 |
UMTS 2100 (DL) | 2,725.9 | 1,354.1 | 32.7 | 43,852.4 |
WIFI 2G | 0.2 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 27.1 |
LTE 2600 (UL) | 47.3 | 8.0 | 0.0 | 2,373.8 |
LTE 2600 (DL) | 3,697.1 | 2,401.5 | 43.5 | 38,929.9 |
WIMax | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.3 |
WIFI 5G | 0.1 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 11.6 |
Total | 10,728.5 | 8,577.7 | 335.4 | 68,814.6 |
FM, frequency modulation; TV, television; LTE, long-term evolution; DL, downlink (transmission from base station to mobile phone); UL, uplink (transmission from mobile phone to base station); GSM, global system for mobile communications; UMTS, universal mobile telecommunications system; DECT, digital European cordless telecommunications; WiMAX, worldwide interoperability for microwave access.
Sergel Plaza, Stockholm, levels of radiofrequency radiation in total based on 1,651 entries. Analysis of all data (µW/m2) treating values at detection limit as 0.
Frequency band | Mean | Median | Min | Max |
---|---|---|---|---|
FM | 1.7 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 281.9 |
TV3 | 1.5 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 268.2 |
TETRA I | 4.1 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 146.5 |
TETRA II | 0.5 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 183.5 |
TETRA III | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 5.4 |
TV4 and 5 | 7.1 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 1,966.4 |
LTE 800 (DL) | 1,047.2 | 450.2 | 2.2 | 23,052.3 |
LTE 800 (UL) | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.2 |
GSM + UMTS 900 (UL) | 0.6 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 299.5 |
GSM + UMTS 900 (DL) | 1,400.8 | 904.7 | 4.9 | 24,449.1 |
GSM 1800 (UL) | 15.2 | 1.1 | 0.0 | 1,871.6 |
GSM 1800 (DL) | 647.9 | 273.3 | 2.5 | 35,746.0 |
DECT | 133.0 | 19.2 | 0.0 | 6,104.2 |
UMTS 2100 (UL) | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 3.4 |
UMTS 2100 (DL) | 1,944.3 | 1,378.9 | 10.9 | 35,029.1 |
WIFI 2G | 0.1 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 14.1 |
LTE 2600 (UL) | 26.4 | 8.0 | 0.0 | 1,371.2 |
LTE 2600 (DL) | 2,537.1 | 1,894.0 | 6.6 | 21,726.9 |
WIMax | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.4 |
WIFI 5G | 0.1 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 13.0 |
Total | 7,767.6 | 6,466.5 | 66.6 | 50,897.3 |
FM, frequency modulation; TV, television; LTE, long-term evolution; DL, downlink (transmission from base station to mobile phone); UL, uplink (transmission from mobile phone to base station); GSM, global system for mobile communications; UMTS, universal mobile telecommunications system; DECT, digital European cordless telecommunications; WiMAX, worldwide interoperability for microwave access.