Disrupted beginnings: Neurodevelopmental outcomes of COVID‑19 lockdowns in early childhood (Review)

Giannopoulou,Ioanna; Efstathiou,Vasiliki; Stefanou,Maria-Ioanna; Korkoliakou,Panagiota; Tsoporis,James N.; Spandidos,Demetrios A.; Rizos,Emmanouil

doi:10.3892/etm.2026.13132

May-2026 Volume 31 Issue 5

Full Size Image

Journals

International Journal of Molecular Medicine

International Journal of Molecular Medicine is an international journal devoted to molecular mechanisms of human disease.

International Journal of Oncology

International Journal of Oncology is an international journal devoted to oncology research and cancer treatment.

Molecular Medicine Reports

Covers molecular medicine topics such as pharmacology, pathology, genetics, neuroscience, infectious diseases, molecular cardiology, and molecular surgery.

Oncology Reports

Oncology Reports is an international journal devoted to fundamental and applied research in Oncology.

Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine

Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine is an international journal devoted to laboratory and clinical medicine.

Oncology Letters

Oncology Letters is an international journal devoted to Experimental and Clinical Oncology.

Biomedical Reports

Explores a wide range of biological and medical fields, including pharmacology, genetics, microbiology, neuroscience, and molecular cardiology.

Molecular and Clinical Oncology

International journal addressing all aspects of oncology research, from tumorigenesis and oncogenes to chemotherapy and metastasis.

World Academy of Sciences Journal

Multidisciplinary open-access journal spanning biochemistry, genetics, neuroscience, environmental health, and synthetic biology.

International Journal of Functional Nutrition

Open-access journal combining biochemistry, pharmacology, immunology, and genetics to advance health through functional nutrition.

International Journal of Epigenetics

Publishes open-access research on using epigenetics to advance understanding and treatment of human disease.

Medicine International

An International Open Access Journal Devoted to General Medicine.

May-2026 Volume 31 Issue 5

Full Size Image

Review Open Access

Disrupted beginnings: Neurodevelopmental outcomes of COVID‑19 lockdowns in early childhood (Review)

Authors:
- Ioanna Giannopoulou
- Vasiliki Efstathiou
- Maria-Ioanna Stefanou
- Panagiota Korkoliakou
- James N. Tsoporis
- Demetrios A. Spandidos
- Emmanouil Rizos
View Affiliations / Copyright

Affiliations: Second Department of Psychiatry, ‘Attikon’ University General Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 12462 Athens, Greece, Department of Psychology, School of Philosophy, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 15772 Athens, Greece, Second Department of Neurology, ‘Attikon’ University General Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 12462 Athens, Greece, Keenan Research Centre for Biomedical Science, Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute, St. Michael's Hospital, Unity Health Toronto, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5B 1W8, Canada, Laboratory of Clinical Virology, Medical School, University of Crete, 71003 Heraklion, Greece

Copyright: © Giannopoulou et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of Creative Commons Attribution License.
Article Number: 137
|
Published online on: March 16, 2026

https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2026.13132
Expand metrics +

Abstract

Early childhood development depends on stable routines, social interaction and responsive caregiving. The 2019 coronavirus disease pandemic disrupted these supports through lockdowns, reduced early‑education access and elevated caregiver stress. The present review synthesized empirical studies (2020‑2025) of children aged 0‑5 years and found consistent evidence of modest increases in emotional and behavioral difficulties, particularly where caregiver stress or socioeconomic adversity was elevated. Cognitive, language and executive‑function (EF) outcomes were found to be more heterogeneous and appeared most affected in the contexts of reduced stimulation or limited access to early learning, with EF processes showing particular sensitivity to stress‑related and environmental disruptions. Biological findings (cortisol, DNA methylation and infant brain measures) showed a number of converging signals, particularly in higher‑risk contexts, but remained preliminary given modest sample sizes, methodological heterogeneity and limited replication. Overall, this suggested that pandemic‑related disruptions disproportionately affected children in vulnerable family contexts. Therefore, the present study suggested targeted caregiver mental‑health support, preservation of early‑education access during emergencies and longitudinal follow‑up of high‑risk cohorts.

Journals

International Journal of Molecular Medicine

International Journal of Oncology

Molecular Medicine Reports

Oncology Reports

Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine

Oncology Letters

Biomedical Reports

Molecular and Clinical Oncology

World Academy of Sciences Journal

International Journal of Functional Nutrition

International Journal of Epigenetics

Medicine International

Disrupted beginnings: Neurodevelopmental outcomes of COVID‑19 lockdowns in early childhood (Review)

This article is mentioned in:

Abstract

Related Articles