Role of the SARS‑COV2 infection in the evolution of acute pancreatitis (Review)

Pădureanu,Vlad; Caragea,Daniel Cosmin; Florescu,Mirela Marinela; Vladu,Ionela Mihaela; Rădulescu,Patricia Mihaela; Florescu,Dan Nicolae; Rădulescu,Dumitru; Pădureanu,Rodica; Efrem,Ion Cristian

doi:10.3892/br.2023.1632

Role of the SARS‑COV2 infection in the evolution of acute pancreatitis (Review)

Authors:
- Vlad Pădureanu
- Daniel Cosmin Caragea
- Mirela Marinela Florescu
- Ionela Mihaela Vladu
- Patricia Mihaela Rădulescu
- Dan Nicolae Florescu
- Dumitru Rădulescu
- Rodica Pădureanu
- Ion Cristian Efrem
View Affiliations

Affiliations: Department of Internal Medicine, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, Craiova 200349, Romania, Department of Nephrology, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, Craiova 200349, Romania, Department of Morphology, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, Craiova 200349, Romania, Department of Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, Craiova 200349, Romania, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova Doctoral School, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, Craiova 200349, Romania, Department of Gastroenterology, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, Craiova 200349, Romania, Department of Surgery, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, Craiova 200349, Romania
Published online on: June 12, 2023 https://doi.org/10.3892/br.2023.1632
Article Number: 49
Copyright: © Pădureanu et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of Creative Commons Attribution License.

Metrics: Total Views: 0 (Spandidos Publications: | PMC Statistics: )

Metrics: Total PDF Downloads: 0 (Spandidos Publications: | PMC Statistics: )

Cited By (CrossRef): 0 citations Loading Articles...

Abstract

Acute pancreatitis is characterized as an inflammatory illness that is life‑threatening and causes necrosis as well as simple edema when pancreatic enzymes are activated intraglandularly. It is not known whether severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 causes acute pancreatitis. Patients with acute pancreatitis who test positive for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‑19) frequently have biliary or alcoholic causes. It is unclear how common acute pancreatitis is in patients with COVID‑19. By contrast with patients without COVID‑19, however, COVID‑19‑positive patients with acute pancreatitis have a higher mortality as well as a higher risk of necrosis and admission to an intensive care unit. The most common cause of mortality in COVID‑19‑positive individuals with concurrent severe pancreatitis is acute respiratory distress syndrome. The present study discussed research on the link between COVID‑19 infection and acute pancreatitis.

View Figures

View References

1	Wang F, Kream R and Stefano G: Long-Term respiratory and neurological sequelae of COVID-19. Med Sci Monit. 26(e928996)2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
2	World Health Organization. COVID-19 Weekly Epidemiological Update [Online]. 2021. Available from: https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/weekly-epidemiological-update-on-covid-19-20-april-2021 [Accessed on 4 March 2022].
3	National Center for Health Statistics. COVID-19 Death Data and Resources [Online]. 2021. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nvss/covid-19.htm [Accessed on 4 March 2022].
4	Matthay MA, Calfee CS, Zhuo H, Thompson BT, Wilson JG, Levitt JE, Rogers AJ, Gotts JE, Wiener-Kronish JP, Bajwa EK, et al: Treatment with allogeneic mesenchymal stromal cells for moderate to severe acute respiratory distress syndrom (START Study): A Randomised phase 2a safety trial. Lancet Respir Med. 7:154–162. 2019.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
5	Akarsu C, Karabulut M, Aydin H, Sahbaz NA, Dural AC, Yegul D, Peker KD, Ferahman S, Bulut S, Dönmez T, et al: Association between Acute Pancreatitis and COVID-19: Could pancreatitis be the missing piece of the puzzle about increased mortality rates? J Invest Surg. 35:119–125. 2022.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
6	Cholankeril G, Podboy A, Aivaliotis VI, Pham EA, Spencer SP, Kim D and Ahmed A: Association of digestive symptoms and hospitalization in patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection. Am J Gastroenterol. 115:1129–1132. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
7	Zhu N, Zhang D, Wang W, Li X, Yang B, Song J, Zhao X, Huang B, Shi W, Lu R, et al: China novel coronavirus investigating and research team a novel coronavirus from patients with pneumonia in China, 2019. N Engl J Med. 382:727–733. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
8	Hunt RH, East JE, Lanas A, Malfertheiner P, Satsangi J, Scarpignato C and Webb GJ: COVID-19 and gastrointestinal disease: Implications for the gastroenterologist. Dig Dis. 39:119–139. 2021.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
9	Zippi M, Hong W, Traversa G, Maccioni F, De Biase D, Gallo C and Fiorino S: Involvement of the exocrine pancreas during COVID-19 infection and possible pathogenetic hypothesis: A concise review. Infez Med. 28:507–515. 2020.PubMed/NCBI
10	Liu F, Long X, Zhang B, Zhang W, Chen X and Zhang Z: ACE2 Expression in pancreas may cause pancreatic damage after SARS-CoV-2 infection. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 18:2128–2130.e2. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
11	Al Armashi AR, Somoza-Cano FJ, Patell K, Al Zubaidi A and Ravakhah K: COVID-19, necrotizing pancreatitis, and abdominal compartment syndrome: A perfect cytokine storm? Cureus. 13(e17230)2021.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
12	Yadav D and Lowenfels AB: The epidemiology of pancreatitis and pancreatic cancer. Gastroenterology. 144:1252–1261. 2013.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
13	van Santvoort HC, Bakker OJ, Bollen TL, Besselink MG, Ahmed Ali U, Schrijver AM, Boermeester MA, van Goor H, Dejong CH, van Eijck CH, et al: A conservative and minimally invasive approach to necrotizing pancreatitis improves outcome. Gastroenterology. 141:1254–1263. 2011.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
14	Banks PA, Bollen TL, Dervenis C, Gooszen HG, Johnson CD, Sarr MG, Tsiotos GG and Vege SS: Acute Pancreatitis Classification Working Group. Classification of acute pancreatitis-2012: Revision of the Atlanta classification and definitions by international consensus. Gut. 62:102–111. 2013.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
15	Seppänen H and Puolakkainen P: Classification, severity assessment, and prevention of recurrences in acute pancreatitis. Scand J Surg. 109:53–58. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
16	Leppäniemi A, Tolonen M, Tarasconi A, Segovia-Lohse H, Gamberini E, Kirkpatrick AW, Ball CG, Parry N, Sartelli M, Wolbrink D, et al: Executive summary: WSES Guidelines for the management of severe acute pancreatitis. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 88:888–890. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
17	Brisinda G, Vanella S, Crocco A, Mazzari A, Tomaiuolo P, Santullo F, Grossi U and Crucitti A: Severe acute pancreatitis: Advances and insights in assessment of severity and management. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 23:541–551. 2011.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
18	https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=%28SARSCOV2+infection%29+AND+%28acute+pancreatitis%29&sort=date.
19	https://0q11o54cq-y-https-www-scopus-com.z.e-nformation.ro/results/results.uri?sort=plf-f&src=s&st1=SARS-COV2+infection&st2=acute+pancreatitis&sid=e66b8378b6130d4fe5ead15b407ac373&sot=b&sdt=b&sl=74&s=%28TITLE-ABS-KEY%28SARS-COV2+infection%29+AND+TITLE-ABS-KEY%28acute+pancreatitis%29%29&origin=searchbasic&editSaveSearch=&yearFrom=Before+1960&yearTo=Present&featureToggles=FEATURE_DOCUMENT_RESULT_MICRO_UI%3A1&sessionSearchId=e66b8378b6130d4fe5ead15b407ac373&limit=10.
20	Fagenholz PJ, Fernández-del Castillo C, Harris NS, Pelletier AJ and Camargo CA Jr: Direct medical costs of acute pancreatitis hospitalizations in the United States. Pancreas. 35:302–307. 2007.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
21	Xiao F, Tang M, Zheng X, Liu Y, Li X and Shan H: Evidence for gastrointestinal infection of SARS-CoV-2. Gastroenterology. 158:1831–1833. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
22	Anand ER, Major C and Pickering O: Acute pancreatitis in a COVID-19 patient. Br J Surg. 107(e182)2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
23	Pandanaboyana S, Moir J, Leeds JS, Oppong K, Kanwar A, Marzouk A, Belgaumkar A, Gupta A, Siriwardena AK, Haque AR, et al: SARS-CoV-2 infection in acute pancreatitis increases disease severity and 30-day mortality: COVID PAN collaborative study. Gut. 70:1061–1069. 2021.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
24	Bita A, Mogosanu GD, Bejenaru LE, Oancea CN, Bejenaru C, Croitoru O, Rau G, Neamtu J, Scorei ID, Scorei IR, et al: Simultaneous quantitation of boric acid and calcium fructoborate in dietary supplements by HPTLC-densitometry. Anal Sci. 33:743–746. 2017.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
25	Hanley B, Naresh KN, Roufosse C, Nicholson AG, Weir J, Cooke GS, Thursz M, Manousou P, Corbett R, Goldin R, et al: Histopathological findings and viral tropism in UK patients with severe fatal COVID-19: A post-mortem study. Lancet Microbe. 1:e245–e253. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
26	Chmielik E, Jazowiecka-Rakus J, Dyduch G, Nasierowska-Guttmejer A, Michalowski L, Sochanik A and Ulatowska-Bialas M: COVID-19 autopsies: A case series from poland. Pathobiology. 88:78–87. 2021.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
27	Guan WJ, Ni ZY, Hu Y, Liang WH, Ou CQ, He JX, Liu L, Shan H, Lei CL, Hui DSC, et al: Clinical characteristics of coronavirus disease 2019 in China. N Engl J Med. 382:1708–1720. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
28	Henry BM, de Oliveira MHS, Benoit J and Lippi G: Gastrointestinal symptoms associated with severity of coronavirus dis-ease 2019 (COVID-19): A pooled analysis. Intern Emerg Med. 15:857–859. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
29	Du M, Cai G, Chen F, Christiani DC, Zhang Z and Wang M: Multiomics evaluation of gastrointestinal and other clinical characteristics of COVID-19. Gastroenterology. 158:2298–2301.e7. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
30	Correia de Sá T, Soares C and Rocha M: Acute pancreatitis and COVID-19: A literature review. World J Gastrointest Surg. 13:574–584. 2021.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
31	Rubin R: SARS-CoV-2 RNA can persist in stool months after respiratory tract clears virus. JAMA. 327:2175–2176. 2022.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
32	Gu J, Han B and Wang J: COVID-19: Gastrointestinal manifestations and potential Fecal-Oral transmission. Gastroenterology. 158:1518–1519. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
33	Dalan R, Bornstein SR, El-Armouche A, Rodionov RN, Markov A, Wielockx B, Beuschlein F and Boehm BO: The ACE-2 in COVID-19: Foe or Friend? Horm Metab Res. 52:257–263. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
34	Shaharuddin SH, Wang V, Santos RS, Gross A, Wang Y, Jawanda H, Zhang Y, Hasan W, Garcia G Jr, Arumugaswami V and Sareen D: Deleterious Effects of SARS-CoV-2 Infection on human pancreatic cells. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 11(678482)2021.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
35	Zhou Z, Zhao N, Shu Y, Han S, Chen B and Shu X: Effect of gastrointestinal symptoms in patients with COVID-19. Gastroenterology. 158:2294–2297. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
36	Aloysius MM, Thatti A, Gupta A, Sharma N, Bansal P and Goyal H: COVID-19 presenting as acute pancreatitis. Pancreatology. 20:1026–1027. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
37	Annunziata A, Coppola A, Andreozzi P, Lanza M, Simioli F, Carannante N, Di Somma C, Di Micco P and Fiorentino G: Acute pancreatitis and COVID-19: A Single-center experience. J Multidiscip Healthc. 14:2857–2861. 2021.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
38	Stephens JR, Wong JLC, Broomhead R, Stümpfle R, Waheed U, Patel P, Brett SJ and Soni S: Raised serum amylase in patients with COVID-19 may not be associated with pancreatitis. Br J Surg. 108:e152–e153. 2021.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
39	Abramczyk U, Nowaczyński M, Słomczyński A, Wojnicz P, Zatyka P and Kuzan A: Consequences of COVID-19 for the pancreas. Int J Mol Sci. 23(864)2022.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
40	Mao R, Qiu Y, He JS, Tan JY, Li XH, Liang J, Shen J, Zhu LR, Chen Y, Iacucci M, et al: Manifestations and prognosis of gastrointestinal and liver involvement in patients with COVID-19: A systematic review and me-ta-analysis. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol. 5:667–678. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
41	Miró Ò, Llorens P, Jiménez S, Piñera P, Burillo-Putze G, Martín A, Martín-Sánchez FJ and González Del Castillo J: Spanish Investigators in Emergency Situations TeAm (SIESTA) network. Frequency of five unusual presentations in patients with COVID-19: Results of the UMC-19-S1. Epidemiol Infect. 148(e189)2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
42	Inamdar S, Benias PC, Liu Y, Sejpal DV, Satapathy SK and Trindade AJ: Northwell COVID-19 Research Consortium. Prevalence, Risk Factors, and Outcomes of Hospitalized Patients With Coronavirus Disease 2019 Presenting as Acute Pancreatitis. Gastroenterology. 159:2226–2228.e2. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
43	Wang K, Luo J, Tan F, Liu J, Ni Z, Liu D, Tian P and Li W: Acute pancreatitis as the initial manifestation in 2 cases of COVID-19 in Wuhan, China. Open Forum Infect Dis. 7(ofaa324)2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
44	Khadka S, Williams K and Solanki S: Remdesivir-associated pancreatitis. Am J Ther. 29:e444–e446. 2022.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
45	Allam MM, El-Zawawy HT, Ahmed SM and Abdelhamid MA: COVID-19 treatment: A potential cause of acute pancreatitis. Clin Case Rep. 10(e6465)2022.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
46	Dirweesh A, Li Y, Trikudanathan G, Mallery JS, Freeman ML and Amateau SK: Clinical outcomes of acute pancre-atitis in patients with coronavirus Disease 2019. Gastroenterology. 159:1972–1974. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
47	Wang F, Wang H, Fan J, Zhang Y, Wang H and Zhao Q: Pancreatic injury patterns in patients with Coronavirus Disease 19 pneumonia. Gastroenterology. 159:367–370. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
48	Akkus C, Yilmaz H, Mizrak S, Adibelli Z, Akdas O and Duran C: Development of pancreatic injuries in the course of COVID-19. Acta Gastroenterol Belg. 83:585–592. 2020.PubMed/NCBI
49	Karaali R and Topal F: Evaluating the effect of SARS-CoV-2 infection on prognosis and mortality in patients with acute pancreatitis. Am J Emerg Med. 49:378–384. 2021.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
50	Kumar V, Barkoudah E, Souza DAT, Jin DX and McNabb-Baltar J: Clinical course and outcome among patients with acute pancreatitis and COVID-19. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 33:695–700. 2021.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
51	Samanta J, Gupta R, Singh MP, Patnaik I, Kumar A and Kochhar R: Coronavirus disease 2019 and the pancreas. Pancreatology. 20:1567–1575. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
52	Rosenbaum L: The untold toll-the Pandemic's effects on patients without covid-19. N Engl J Med. 382:2368–2371. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
53	Rodriguez-Leor O, Cid-Álvarez B, Ojeda S, Martín-Moreiras J, Rumoroso JR, López-Palop R, Serrador A, Cequier A, Romaguera R, Cruz I, et al: Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic interventional cardiology activity in Spain. REC Interv Cardiol. 2:82–89. 2020.
54	Hartnett KP, Kite-Powell A, DeVies J, Coletta MA, Boehmer TK, Adjemian J and Gundlapalli AV: National Syndromic Surveillance Program Community of Practice. Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on emergency department visits-USA, January 1, 2019-May 30, 2020. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 69:699–704. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
55	Guo Q, Li A, Xia Q, Liu X, Tian B, Mai G, Huang Z, Chen G, Tang W, Jin X, et al: The role of organ failure and infection in necrotizing pancreatitis: A prospective study. Ann Surg. 259:1201–1207. 2014.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
56	Radulescu PM, Davitoiu DV, Baleanu VD, Padureanu V, Ramboiu DS, Surlin MV, Bratiloveanu TC, Georgescu EF, Streba CT, Mercut R, et al: Has COVID-19 Modified the Weight of Known Sys-temic inflammation indexes and the New Ones (MCVL and IIC) in the assessment as predictive factors of complications and mortality in acute pancreatitis? Diagnostics (Basel). 12(3118)2022.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
57	Samanta J, Mahapatra SJ, Kumar N, Elhence A, Dhar J, Gupta A, Dhooria A, Bhalla A, Prasad M, Das A, et al: Virus related acute pancreatitis and virus superinfection in the ‘Dual disease’ model of acute pancreatitis and SARS-Co-V2 infection: A multicentre prospective study. Pancreatology. 22:339–347. 2022.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
58	Banks PA, Bollen TL, Dervenis C, Gooszen HG, Johnson CD, Sarr MG, Tsiotos GG and Vege SS: Acute Pancreatitis Classification Working Group. Classification of acute pancreatitis-2012: Revision of the Atlanta classification and definitions by international consensus. Gut. 62:102–111. 2013.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
59	Ramsey ML, Patel A, Sobotka LA, Lim W, Kirkpatrick RB, Han S, Hart PA, Krishna SG, Lara LF, Lee PJ, et al: Hospital trends of acute pancreatitis during the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic. Pancreas. 51:422–426. 2022.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
60	Pădureanu V, Boldeanu MV, Streaţă I, Cucu MG, Siloşi I, Boldeanu L, Bogdan M, Enescu AŞ, Forţofoiu M, Enescu A, et al: De-termination of VEGFR-2 (KDR) 604A>G polymorphism in pancreatic disorders. Int J Mol Sci. 18(439)2017.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
61	Ozaka S, Kodera T, Ariki S, Kobayashi T and Murakami K: Acute pancreatitis soon after COVID-19 vaccination: A case re-port. Medicine (Baltimore). 101(e28471)2022.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
62	Walter T, Connor S, Stedman C and Doogue M: A case of acute necrotising pancreatitis following the second dose of Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 mRNA vaccine. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 88:1385–1386. 2022.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
63	Meo SA, Bukhari IA, Akram J, Meo AS and Klonoff DC: COVID-19 vaccines: Comparison of biological, pharmacological characteristics and adverse effects of Pfizer/BioNTech and Moderna Vaccines. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 25:1663–1669. 2021.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
64	Rosenblum HG, Hadler SC, Moulia D, Shimabukuro TT, Su JR, Tepper NK, Ess KC, Woo EJ, Mba-Jonas A, Alimchandani M, et al: Use of COVID-19 vaccines after reports of adverse events among adult recipients of Janssen (Johnson & Johnson) and mRNA COVID-19 Vaccines (Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna): Update from the Advi-sory committee on immunization Practices-United States, July 2021. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 70:1094–1099. 2021.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
65	Parkash O, Sharko A, Farooqi A, Ying GW and Sura P: Acute pancreatitis: A possible side effect of COVID-19 vaccine. Cu-reus. 13(e14741)2021.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
66	Pfizer: Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine (BNT162, PF-07302048). Vaccines and related biological products advisory committee. [cited 13 April 2022].
67	COVID-19 mRNA Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine analysis print. All UK spontaneous reports received between 9 December 2020 and 30 June 2021 for mRNA Pfizer/BioNTech vaccine analysis print. 2021. [cited 13 April 2022]. Available from: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1009453/COVID 19_mRNA_PfizerBioNTech_Vaccine_Analysis_Print_DPL_28.07.2021.
68	World Health Organization. VigiAccess. [cited 13 April 2022]. Available from: http://www.vigiaccess.org.
69	Boskabadi SJ, Ala S, Heydari F, Ebrahimi M and Jamnani AN: Acute pancreatitis following COVID-19 vaccine: A case report and brief literature review. Heliyon. 9(e12914)2023.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
70	Boxhoorn L, Voermans RP, Bouwense SA, Bruno MJ, Verdonk RC, Boermeester MA, van Santvoort HC and Besselink MG: Acute pancreatitis. Lancet. 396:726–734. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
71	Bulthuis MC, Boxhoorn L, Beudel M, Elbers PWG, Kop MPM, van Wanrooij RLJ, Besselink MG and Voermans RP: Acute pancreatitis in COVID-19 patients: True risk? Scand J Gastroenterol. 56:585–587. 2021.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
72	Ding P, Song B, Liu X, Fang X, Cai H, Zhang D and Zheng X: Elevated pancreatic enzymes in ICU patients With COVID-19 in Wuhan, China: A retrospective study. Front Med (Lausanne). 8(663646)2021.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
73	Yao J and Lv G: Association between red cell distribution width and acute pancreatitis: A cross-sectional study. BMJ Open. 4(e004721)2014.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
74	Jeon TJ and Park JY: Clinical significance of the neutrophil-lymphocyte ratio as an early predictive marker foradverse outcomes in patients with acute pancreatitis. World J Gastroenterol. 23:3883–3889. 2017.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
75	Takada K, Takamori S, Yoneshima Y, Tanaka K, Okamoto I, Shimokawa M, Oba T, Osoegawa A, Tagawa T, Takenoyama M, et al: Serum markers associated with treatment response and survival in non-small cell lung cancer patients treated with anti-PD-1 therapy. Lung Cancer. 145:18–26. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
76	Huang Y, Liu A, Liang L, Jiang J, Luo H, Deng W, Lin G, Wu M, Li T and Jiang Y: Diagnostic value of blood parameters for community-acquired pneumonia. Int Immunopharmacol. 64:10–15. 2018.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
77	Chan JC, Chan DL, Diakos CI, Engel A, Pavlakis N, Gill A and Clarke SJ: The Lymphocyte-to-Monocyte ratio is a superior predictor of overall survival in comparison to established biomarkers of resectable colorectal cancer. Ann Surg. 265:539–546. 2017.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
78	Tan D, Fu Y, Tong W and Li F: Prognostic significance of lymphocyte to monocyte ratio in colorectal cancer: A meta-analysis. Int J Surg. 55:128–138. 2018.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
79	Li M, Deng Q, Zhang L, He S, Rong J and Zheng F: The pretreatment lymphocyte to monocyte ratio predicts clinical outcome for patients with urological cancers: A meta-analysis. Pathol Res Pract. 215:5–11. 2019.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
80	Huang HL, Nie X, Cai B, Tang JT, He Y, Miao Q, Song HL, Luo TX, Gao BX, Wang LL and Li GX: Procalcitonin levelspredict acute kidney injury and prognosis in acute pancreatitis: A prospective study. PLoS One. 8(e82250)2013.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
81	Banks PA and Freeman ML: Practice Parameters Committee of the American College of Gastroenterology. Practice guidelines in acute pancreatitis. Am J Gastroenterol. 101:2379–2400. 2006.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
82	Tenner S, Baillie J, DeWitt J and Vege SS: American College of Gastroenterology. American College of Gastroenterology guideline: Management of acute pancreatitis. Am J Gastroenterol. 108:1400–1415. 2013.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
83	Sarr MG: Early fluid ʻresuscitation/therapy’ in acute pancreatitis: Which fluid? Ann Surg. 257:189–190. 2013.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
84	Pădureanu V, Florescu DN, Pădureanu R, Ghenea AE, Gheonea DI and Oancea CN: Role of antioxidants and oxidative stress in the evolution of acute pancreatitis (Review). Exp Ther Med. 23(197)2022.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
85	Bortolotti P, Saulnier F, Colling D, Redheuil A and Preau S: New tools for optimizing fluid resuscitation in acute pancreatitis. World J Gastroenterol. 20:16113–16122. 2014.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
86	Çolak E and Çiftci AB: Acute biliary pancreatitis management during the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic. Healthcare (Basel). 10(1284)2022.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
87	Arvanitakis M, Ockenga J, Bezmarevic M, Gianotti L, Krznarić Ž, Lobo DN, Löser C, Madl C, Meier R, Phillips M, et al: ESPEN guideline on clinical nutrition in acute and chronic pancreatitis. Clin Nutr. 39:612–631. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
88	Dang SC, Wang H, Zhang JX, Cui L, Jiang DL, Chen RF, Qu JG, Shen XQ, Chen M and Gu M: Are gastric mucosal macrophages responsible for gastric injury in acute pancreatitis? World J Gastroenterol. 21(2651)2015.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
89	Darnell ME, Subbarao K, Feinstone SM and Taylor DR: Inactivation of the coronavirus that induces severe acute respiratory syndrome, SARS-CoV. J Virol Methods. 121:85–91. 2004.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
90	Zhou L, Niu Z, Jiang X, Zhang Z, Zheng Y, Wang Z, Zhu Y, Gao L, Huang H, Wang X and Sun Q: SARS-CoV-2 targets by the pscRNA profiling of ACE2, TMPRSS2 and furin proteases. iScience. 23(101744)2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
91	Kerwat K, Graf J and Wulf H: Nosocomial infections. Anasthesiol Intensivmed Notfallmed Schmerzther. 45:30–31. 2010.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar : (In German).
92	Michaelis M, Kleinschmidt MC, Bojkova D, Rabenau HF, Wass MN and Cinatl J Jr: Omeprazole increases the efficacy of acyclovir against herpes simplex virus type 1 and 2. Front Microbiol. 10(2790)2019.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
93	Taştemur Ş and Ataseven H: Is it possible to use proton pump inhibitors in COVID-19 treatment and prophylaxis? Med Hypotheses. 143(110018)2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
94	Bojkova D, McGreig JE, McLaughlin KM, Masterson GS, Widera M, Krähling V, Ciesek S, Wass MN, Michaelis M and Cinatl J jr: SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV differ in their cell tropism and drug sensitivity profiles. bioRxiv: April 5, 2020 doi: 10.1101/2020.04.03.024257.
95	Murata A, Ohtani M, Muramatsu K and Matsuda S: Effects of proton pump inhibitor on outcomes of patients with severe acute pancreatitis based on a national administrative database. Pancreatology. 15:491–496. 2015.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
96	Ma X, Liu L, Tong H, Tang S, Ye C, Tai Y and Tang C: A randomized controlled trial of proton pump inhibitors inthe treatment of acute pancreatitis patients: The benefits and harms. Gastroenterology. 152 (Suppl)(S73)2017.
97	Contou D, Claudinon A, Pajot O, Micaëlo M, Longuet Flandre P, Dubert M, Cally R, Logre E, Fraissé M, Mentec H and Plantefève G: Bacterial and viral co-infections in patients with severe SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia admitted to a French ICU. Ann Intensive Care. 10(119)2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
98	He S, Liu W, Jiang M, Huang P, Xiang Z, Deng D, Chen P and Xie L: Clinical characteristics of COVID-19 patients with clinically diagnosed bacterial co-infection: a multi-center study. PLoS One. 16(e0249668)2021.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
99	Ginsburg AS and Klugman KP: COVID-19 pneumonia and the appropriate use of antibiotics. Lancet Glob Health. 8:e1453–e1454. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
100	Isenmann R, Runzi M, Kron M, Kahl S, Kraus D, Jung N, Maier L, Malfertheiner P, Goebell H and Beger HG: German Antibiotics in Severe Acute Pancreatitis Study Group. Prophylactic antibiotic treatment in patients with predicted severe acute pancreatitis: A placebo-controlled, double blind trial. Gastroenterology. 126:997–1004. 2004.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
101	Jiang K, Huang W, Yang XN and Xia Q: Present and future of prophylactic antibiotics for severe acute pancreatitis. World J Gastroenterol. 18:279–284. 2012.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
102	Sakorafas GH, Lappas C, Mastoraki A, Delis SG and Safioleas M: Current trends in the management of infected necrotizing pancreatitis. Infect Disord Drug Targets. 10:9–14. 2010.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
103	Leppäniemi A, Tolonen M, Tarasconi A, Segovia-Lohse H, Gamberini E, Kirkpatrick AW, Ball CG, Parry N, Sartelli M, Wolbrink D, et al: 2019 WSES guidelines for the management of severe acute pancreatitis. World J Emerg Surg. 14(27)2019.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
104	Stigliano S, Sternby H, de Madaria E, Capurso G and Petrov MS: Early management of acute pancreatitis: A review of the best evidence. Dig Liver Dis. 49:585–594. 2017.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
105	De Waele JJ: Rational use of antimicrobials in patients with severe acute pancreatitis. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 32:174–180. 2011.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
106	Mourad MM, Evans R, Kalidindi V, Navaratnam R, Dvorkin L and Bramhall SR: Prophylactic antibiotics in acute pancreatitis: Endless debate. Ann R Coll Surg Engl. 99:107–112. 2017.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
107	Diaz JJ Jr, Cullinane DC, Khwaja KA, Tyson GH, Ott M, Jerome R, Kerwin AJ, Collier BR, Pappas PA, Sangosanya AT, et al: Eastern association for the surgery of trauma. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 75:376–386. 2013.
108	Gurusamy KS, Belgaumkar AP, Haswell A, Pereira SP and Davidson BR: Interventions for necrotising pancreatitis. Cochrane upper GI and pancreatic diseases group. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 137:201–253. 2016.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
109	Bakker OJ, van Santvoort HC, van Brunschot S, Geskus RB, Besselink MG, Bollen TL, van Eijck CH, Fockens P, Hazebroek EJ, Nijmeijer RM, et al: Endoscopic transgastric vs surgical necrosectomy for infected necrotizing pancreatitis: A randomized trial. JAMA. 307:1053–1061. 2012.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
110	van Brunschot S, van Grinsven J, van Santvoort HC, Bakker OJ, Besselink MG, Boermeester MA, Bollen TL, Bosscha K, Bouwense SA, Bruno MJ, et al: Endoscopic or surgical step-up approach for infected necrotising pancreatitis: A multicentre randomised trial. Lancet. 391:51–58. 2018.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
111	Mowery NT, Bruns BR, MacNew HG, Agarwal S, Enniss TM, Khan M, Guo WA, Cannon JW, Lissauer ME, Duane TM, et al: Surgical management of pancreatic necrosis. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 83:316–327. 2017.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
112	Haines K, Parker V, Ohnuma T, Krishnamoorthy V, Raghunathan K, Sulo S, Kerr KW, Besecker BY, Cassady BA and Wischmeyer PE: Role of early enteral nutrition in mechanically ventilated COVID-19 patients. Crit Care Explor. 4(e0683)2022.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
113	Compher C, Bingham AL, McCall M, Patel J, Rice TW, Braunschweig C and McKeever L: Guidelines for the provision of nutrition support therapy in the adult critically ill patient: The American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 46:12–41. 2022.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
114	Besselink MG, van Santvoort HC, Nieuwenhuijs VB, Boermeester MA, Bollen TL, Buskens E, Dejong CH, van Eijck CH, van Goor H, Hofker SS, et al: Minimally invasive ‘step-up approach’ vs maximal necrosectomy in patients with acute necrotising pancreatitis (PANTER trial): Design and rationale of a randomised controlled multicenter trial [ISRCTN13975868]. BMC Surg. 6(6)2006.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
115	Hollemans RA, Bakker OJ, Boermeester MA, Bollen TL, Bosscha K, Bruno MJ, Buskens E, Dejong CH, van Duijvendijk P, van Eijck CH, et al: Superiority of step-up approach vs open necrosectomy in long-term follow-up of patients with necrotizing pancreatitis. Gastroenterology. 156:1016–1026. 2019.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar