Spandidos Publications Logo
  • About
    • About Spandidos
    • Aims and Scopes
    • Abstracting and Indexing
    • Editorial Policies
    • Reprints and Permissions
    • Job Opportunities
    • Terms and Conditions
    • Contact
  • Journals
    • All Journals
    • Oncology Letters
      • Oncology Letters
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • International Journal of Oncology
      • International Journal of Oncology
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Molecular and Clinical Oncology
      • Molecular and Clinical Oncology
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine
      • Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • International Journal of Molecular Medicine
      • International Journal of Molecular Medicine
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Biomedical Reports
      • Biomedical Reports
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Oncology Reports
      • Oncology Reports
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Molecular Medicine Reports
      • Molecular Medicine Reports
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • World Academy of Sciences Journal
      • World Academy of Sciences Journal
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • International Journal of Functional Nutrition
      • International Journal of Functional Nutrition
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • International Journal of Epigenetics
      • International Journal of Epigenetics
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Medicine International
      • Medicine International
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
  • Articles
  • Information
    • Information for Authors
    • Information for Reviewers
    • Information for Librarians
    • Information for Advertisers
    • Conferences
  • Language Editing
Spandidos Publications Logo
  • About
    • About Spandidos
    • Aims and Scopes
    • Abstracting and Indexing
    • Editorial Policies
    • Reprints and Permissions
    • Job Opportunities
    • Terms and Conditions
    • Contact
  • Journals
    • All Journals
    • Biomedical Reports
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • International Journal of Epigenetics
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • International Journal of Functional Nutrition
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • International Journal of Molecular Medicine
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • International Journal of Oncology
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Medicine International
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Molecular and Clinical Oncology
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Molecular Medicine Reports
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Oncology Letters
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Oncology Reports
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • World Academy of Sciences Journal
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
  • Articles
  • Information
    • For Authors
    • For Reviewers
    • For Librarians
    • For Advertisers
    • Conferences
  • Language Editing
Login Register Submit
  • This site uses cookies
  • You can change your cookie settings at any time by following the instructions in our Cookie Policy. To find out more, you may read our Privacy Policy.

    I agree
Search articles by DOI, keyword, author or affiliation
Search
Advanced Search
presentation
Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine
Join Editorial Board Propose a Special Issue
Print ISSN: 1792-0981 Online ISSN: 1792-1015
Journal Cover
November-2024 Volume 28 Issue 5

Full Size Image

Sign up for eToc alerts
Recommend to Library

Journals

International Journal of Molecular Medicine

International Journal of Molecular Medicine

International Journal of Molecular Medicine is an international journal devoted to molecular mechanisms of human disease.

International Journal of Oncology

International Journal of Oncology

International Journal of Oncology is an international journal devoted to oncology research and cancer treatment.

Molecular Medicine Reports

Molecular Medicine Reports

Covers molecular medicine topics such as pharmacology, pathology, genetics, neuroscience, infectious diseases, molecular cardiology, and molecular surgery.

Oncology Reports

Oncology Reports

Oncology Reports is an international journal devoted to fundamental and applied research in Oncology.

Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine

Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine

Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine is an international journal devoted to laboratory and clinical medicine.

Oncology Letters

Oncology Letters

Oncology Letters is an international journal devoted to Experimental and Clinical Oncology.

Biomedical Reports

Biomedical Reports

Explores a wide range of biological and medical fields, including pharmacology, genetics, microbiology, neuroscience, and molecular cardiology.

Molecular and Clinical Oncology

Molecular and Clinical Oncology

International journal addressing all aspects of oncology research, from tumorigenesis and oncogenes to chemotherapy and metastasis.

World Academy of Sciences Journal

World Academy of Sciences Journal

Multidisciplinary open-access journal spanning biochemistry, genetics, neuroscience, environmental health, and synthetic biology.

International Journal of Functional Nutrition

International Journal of Functional Nutrition

Open-access journal combining biochemistry, pharmacology, immunology, and genetics to advance health through functional nutrition.

International Journal of Epigenetics

International Journal of Epigenetics

Publishes open-access research on using epigenetics to advance understanding and treatment of human disease.

Medicine International

Medicine International

An International Open Access Journal Devoted to General Medicine.

Journal Cover
November-2024 Volume 28 Issue 5

Full Size Image

Sign up for eToc alerts
Recommend to Library

  • Article
  • Citations
    • Cite This Article
    • Download Citation
    • Create Citation Alert
    • Remove Citation Alert
    • Cited By
  • Similar Articles
    • Related Articles (in Spandidos Publications)
    • Similar Articles (Google Scholar)
    • Similar Articles (PubMed)
  • Download PDF
  • Download XML
  • View XML
Review Open Access

Atypical pneumonia (Review)

  • Authors:
    • Vasiliki Epameinondas Georgakopoulou
    • Ioannis G. Lempesis
    • Kyriakos Tarantinos
    • Pagona Sklapani
    • Nikolaos Trakas
    • Demetrios A. Spandidos
  • View Affiliations / Copyright

    Affiliations: Department of Pathophysiology, Laiko General Hospital, Medical School of National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece, First Department of Respiratory Medicine, Sismanogleio Hospital, 15126 Athens, Greece, Department of Biochemistry, Sismanogleio Hospital, 15126 Athens, Greece, Laboratory of Clinical Virology, School of Medicine, University of Crete, 71003 Heraklion, Greece
    Copyright: © Georgakopoulou et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of Creative Commons Attribution License.
  • Article Number: 424
    |
    Published online on: September 11, 2024
       https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2024.12713
  • Expand metrics +
Metrics: Total Views: 0 (Spandidos Publications: | PMC Statistics: )
Metrics: Total PDF Downloads: 0 (Spandidos Publications: | PMC Statistics: )
Cited By (CrossRef): 0 citations Loading Articles...

This article is mentioned in:



Abstract

Atypical pneumonia encompasses diverse pathogens, such as Chlamydia pneumoniae, Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Legionella species, which differ from typical bacterial pneumonia in their extrapulmonary manifestations. Clinical differentiation relies on systemic involvement rather than on standalone symptoms. Despite challenges in distinct diagnosis, syndromic approaches and weighted point systems aid in accurate presumptive diagnoses. Antibiotic treatment, often non‑β‑lactams due to the unique cell structures of atypical pathogens, targets intracellular processes. Macrolides, tetracyclines, quinolones and ketolides are effective due to their intracellular penetration, crucial for combating these intracellular pathogens. The prevalence of atypical pneumonia varies globally, with Europe, Asia/Africa and Latin America reporting detection rates between 20‑28%. Streptococcus pneumoniae remains a primary cause of pneumonia; however, atypical pathogens contribute significantly to this disease, being more prevalent in outpatient settings and among young adults. Legionella stands out in severe hospitalized cases and is associated with higher mortality rates. Diagnosis proves challenging due to overlapping symptoms with other respiratory infections. Differentiation among pathogens, such as Chlamydia pneumoniae, Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Legionella relies on subtle clinical variations and imaging findings. Diagnostic methods include serological studies, cultures and polymerase chain reaction, each with limitations in sensitivity or specificity. Prognosis varies widely. Atypical pneumonia can progress to severe forms with fatal outcomes, causing multi‑organ damage. Complications extend beyond the respiratory system, affecting the cardiovascular system, exacerbating conditions such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma, and potentially linking to conditions such as lung cancer. Increasing antibiotic resistance poses a significant challenge, influencing treatment outcomes and prolonging illness duration.
View Figures

Figure 1

Figure 2

Figure 3

View References

1 

Murray HW and Tuazon C: Atypical pneumonias. Med Clin North Am. 64:507–527. 1980.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

2 

Martin RE and Bates JH: Atypical pneumonia. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 5:585–601. 1991.PubMed/NCBI

3 

Blasi F: Atypical pathogens and respiratory tract infections. Eur Respir J. 24:171–181. 2004.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

4 

Garin N, Marti C, Skali Lami A and Prendki V: Atypical pathogens in adult community-acquired pneumonia and implications for empiric antibiotic treatment: A narrative review. Microorganisms. 10(2326)2022.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

5 

Gong C, Zhang T, Luo M, Li A, Dong M, Li M, Wang Y and Huang F: Distribution of the atypical pathogens of community-acquired pneumonia to disease severity. J Thorac Dis. 10:5991–6001. 2018.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

6 

Cunha BA: The atypical pneumonias: Clinical diagnosis and importance. Clin Microbiol Infect. 12 (Suppl 3):S12–S24. 2006.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

7 

Cheng YJ, Lin KY, Chen CC, Huang YL, Liu CE and Li SY: Zoonotic atypical pneumonia due to Chlamydophila psittaci: First reported psittacosis case in Taiwan. J Formos Med Assoc. 112:430–433. 2013.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

8 

Lynch JP III and Clark NM: Pneumonia | Atypical. Encyclopedia of Respiratory Medicine. 2006:410–417. 2006.

9 

Woodhead MA and Macfarlane JT: Comparative clinical and laboratory features of legionella with pneumococcal and mycoplasma pneumonias. Br J Dis Chest. 81:133–139. 1987.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

10 

Sopena N, Sabrià-Leal M, Pedro-Botet ML, Padilla E, Dominguez J, Morera J and Tudela P: Comparative study of the clinical presentation of Legionella pneumonia and other community-acquired pneumonias. Chest. 113:1195–1200. 1998.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

11 

Mulazimoglu L and Yu VL: Can Legionnaires disease be diagnosed by clinical criteria? A critical review. Chest. 120:1049–1053. 2001.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

12 

Fernández-Sabé N, Rosón B, Carratalà J, Dorca J, Manresa F and Gudiol F: Clinical diagnosis of Legionella pneumonia revisited: Evaluation of the Community-Based Pneumonia Incidence Study Group scoring system. Clin Infect Dis. 37:483–489. 2003.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

13 

Gupta SK and Sarosi GA: The role of atypical pathogens in community-acquired pneumonia. Med Clin North Am. 85:1349–1365, vii. 2001.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

14 

Gramegna A, Sotgiu G, Di Pasquale M, Radovanovic D, Terraneo S, Reyes LF, Vendrell E, Neves J, Menzella F, Blasi F, et al: Atypical pathogens in hospitalized patients with community-acquired pneumonia: A worldwide perspective. BMC Infect Dis. 18(677)2018.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

15 

Cunha BA: Antibiotic pharmacokinetic considerations in pulmonary infections. Semin Respir Infect. 6:168–182. 1991.PubMed/NCBI

16 

Schüler P, Zemper K, Borner K, Koeppe P, Schaberg T and Lode H: Penetration of sparfloxacin and ciprofloxacin into alveolar macrophages, epithelial lining fluid, and polymorphonuclear leucocytes. Eur Respir J. 10:1130–1136. 1997.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

17 

Honeybourne D: Antibiotic penetration in the respiratory tract and implications for the selection of antimicrobial therapy. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 3:170–174. 1997.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

18 

Muller-Serieys C, Soler P, Cantalloube C, Lemaitre F, Gia HP, Brunner F and Andremont A: Bronchopulmonary disposition of the ketolide telithromycin (HMR 3647). Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 45:3104–3108. 2001.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

19 

Esposito S and Principi N: Asthma in children: Are chlamydia or mycoplasma involved? Paediatr Drugs. 3:159–168. 2001.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

20 

Daian CM, Wolff AH and Bielory L: The role of atypical organisms in asthma. Allergy Asthma Proc. 21:107–111. 2000.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

21 

MacDowell AL and Bacharier LB: Infectious triggers of asthma. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 25:45–66. 2005.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

22 

Micillo E, Bianco A, D'Auria D, Mazzarella G and Abbate GF: Respiratory infections and asthma. Allergy. 55 (Suppl 61):S42–S45. 2000.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

23 

Sessa R, Di Pietro M, Santino I, del Piano M, Varveri A, Dagianti A and Penco M: Chlamydia pneumoniae infection and atherosclerotic coronary disease. Am Heart J. 137:1116–1119. 1999.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

24 

Ericson K, Saldeen TG, Lindquist O, Pâhlson C and Mehta JL: Relationship of Chlamydia pneumoniae infection to severity of human coronary atherosclerosis. Circulation. 101:2568–2571. 2000.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

25 

Zamorano J, García-Tejada J, Suárez A, Culebras E, Castañón J, Moreno R, Reguillo F, Gil M, Picazo J and Sánchez-Harguindey L: Chlamydia pneumoniae in the atherosclerotic plaques of patients with unstable angina undergoing coronary artery bypass grafting: Does it have prognostic implications? Int J Cardiol. 90:297–302. 2003.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

26 

Weinberg AN: Respiratory infections transmitted from animals. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 5:649–661. 1991.PubMed/NCBI

27 

Gill V and Cunha BA: Tularemia pneumonia. Semin Respir Infect. 12:61–67. 1997.PubMed/NCBI

28 

Stubbs R, Dralle W and Williams J: Psittacosis pneumonia. J Tenn Med Assoc. 82:189–190. 1989.PubMed/NCBI

29 

Cotton EM, Strampfer MJ and Cunha BA: Legionella and mycoplasma pneumonia-a community hospital experience with atypical pneumonias. Clin Chest Med. 8:441–453. 1987.PubMed/NCBI

30 

Arnold FW, Summersgill JT, Lajoie AS, Peyrani P, Marrie TJ, Rossi P, Blasi F, Fernandez P, File TM Jr, Rello J, et al: A worldwide perspective of atypical pathogens in community-acquired pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 175:1086–1093. 2007.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

31 

Wang S, Tang J, Tan Y, Song Z and Qin L: Prevalence of atypical pathogens in patients with severe pneumonia: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open. 13(e066721)2023.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

32 

Cillóniz C, Ewig S, Polverino E, Marcos MA, Esquinas C, Gabarrús A, Mensa J and Torres A: Microbial aetiology of community-acquired pneumonia and its relation to severity. Thorax. 66:340–346. 2011.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

33 

Capelastegui A, España PP, Bilbao A, Gamazo J, Medel F, Salgado J, Gorostiaga I, Lopez de Goicoechea MJ, Gorordo I, Esteban C, et al: Etiology of community-acquired pneumonia in a population-based study: Link between etiology and patients characteristics, process-of-care, clinical evolution and outcomes. BMC Infect Dis. 12(134)2012.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

34 

Spoorenberg SM, Bos WJ, Heijligenberg R, Voorn PG, Grutters JC, Rijkers GT and van de Garde EM: Microbial aetiology, outcomes, and costs of hospitalisation for community-acquired pneumonia; an observational analysis. BMC Infect Dis. 14(335)2014.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

35 

Van Gageldonk-Lafeber AB, Wever PC, van der Lubben IM, de Jager CP, Meijer A, de Vries MC, Elberse K, van der Sande MA and van der Hoek W: The aetiology of community-acquired pneumonia and implications for patient management. Neth J Med. 71:418–425. 2013.PubMed/NCBI

36 

Shibli F, Chazan B, Nitzan O, Flatau E, Edelstein H, Blondheim O, Raz R and Colodner R: Etiology of community-acquired pneumonia in hospitalized patients in northern Israel. Isr Med Assoc J. 12:477–482. 2010.PubMed/NCBI

37 

Liu Y, Chen M, Zhao T, Wang H, Wang R, Cai B, Cao B, Sun T, Hu Y, Xiu Q, et al: Causative agent distribution and antibiotic therapy assessment among adult patients with community acquired pneumonia in Chinese urban population. BMC Infect Dis. 9(31)2009.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

38 

Tao LL, Hu BJ, He LX, Wei L, Xie HM, Wang BQ, Li HY, Chen XH, Zhou CM and Deng WW: Etiology and antimicrobial resistance of community-acquired pneumonia in adult patients in China. Chin Med J (Engl). 125:2967–2972. 2012.PubMed/NCBI

39 

Chen K, Jia R, Li L, Yang C and Shi Y: The aetiology of community associated pneumonia in children in Nanjing, China and aetiological patterns associated with age and season. BMC Public Health. 15(113)2015.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

40 

Arancibia F, Cortes CP, Valdés M, Cerda J, Hernández A, Soto L and Torres A: Importance of Legionella pneumophila in the etiology of severe community-acquired pneumonia in Santiago, Chile. Chest. 145:290–296. 2014.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

41 

Luchsinger V, Ruiz M, Zunino E, Martínez MA, Machado C, Piedra PA, Fasce R, Ulloa MT, Fink MC, Lara P, et al: Community-acquired pneumonia in Chile: The clinical relevance in the detection of viruses and atypical bacteria. Thorax. 68:1000–1006. 2013.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

42 

Vergis EN, Indorf A, File TM Jr, Phillips J, Bates J, Tan J, Sarosi GA, Grayston JT, Summersgill J and YU VL: Azithromycin vs cefuroxime plus erythromycin for empirical treatment of community-acquired pneumonia in hospitalized patients: A prospective, randomized, multicenter trial. Arch Intern Med. 160:1294–1300. 2000.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

43 

Sopena N, Sabrià M, Pedro-Botet ML, Manterola JM, Matas L, Domínguez J, Modol JM, Tudela P, Ausina V and Foz M: Prospective study of community-acquired pneumonia of bacterial etiology in adults. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 18:852–858. 1999.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

44 

Viasus D, Di Yacovo S, Garcia-Vidal C, Verdaguer R, Manresa F, Dorca J, Gudiol F and Carratalà J: Community-acquired Legionella pneumophila pneumonia: A single-center experience with 214 hospitalized sporadic cases over 15 years. Medicine (Baltimore). 92:51–60. 2013.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

45 

Conklin L, Adjemian J, Loo J, Mandal S, Davis C, Parks S, Parsons T, McDonough B, Partida J, Thurman K, et al: Investigation of a Chlamydia pneumoniae outbreak in a Federal correctional facility in Texas. Clin Infect Dis. 57:639–647. 2013.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

46 

Miyashita N, Fukano H, Okimoto N, Hara H, Yoshida K, Niki Y and Matsushima T: Clinical presentation of community-acquired Chlamydia pneumoniae pneumonia in adults. Chest. 121:1776–1781. 2002.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

47 

Puljiz I, Kuzman I, Dakovic-Rode O, Schönwald N and Mise B: Chlamydia pneumoniae and Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia: Comparison of clinical, epidemiological characteristics and laboratory profiles. Epidemiol Infect. 134:548–555. 2006.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

48 

Yu Y and Fei A: Atypical pathogen infection in community-acquired pneumonia. Biosci Trends. 10:7–13. 2016.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

49 

Reinton N, Manley L, Tjade T and Moghaddam A: Respiratory tract infections during the 2011 Mycoplasma pneumoniae epidemic. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 32:835–840. 2013.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

50 

Diaz MH and Winchell JM: The evolution of advanced molecular diagnostics for the detection and characterization of mycoplasma pneumoniae. Front Microbiol. 7(232)2016.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

51 

Brown RJ, Nguipdop-Djomo P, Zhao H, Stanford E, Spiller OB and Chalker VJ: Mycoplasma pneumoniae Epidemiology in England and Wales: A National Perspective. Front Microbiol. 7(157)2016.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

52 

Narita M: Classification of extrapulmonary manifestations due to mycoplasma pneumoniae infection on the basis of possible pathogenesis. Front Microbiol. 7(23)2016.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

53 

Fraser DW, Tsai TR, Orenstein W, Parkin WE, Beecham HJ, Sharrar RG, Harris J, Mallison GF, Martin SM, McDade JE, et al: Legionnaires' disease: Description of an epidemic of pneumonia. N Engl J Med. 297:1189–1197. 1977.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

54 

Glick TH, Gregg MB, Berman B, Mallison G, Rhodes WW Jr and Kassanoff I: Pontiac fever. An epidemic of unknown etiology in a health department: I. Clinical and epidemiologic aspects. Am J Epidemiol. 107:149–160. 1978.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

55 

Levy I and Rubin LG: Legionella pneumonia in neonates: A literature review. J Perinatol. 18:287–290. 1998.PubMed/NCBI

56 

Garcia AV, Fingeret AL, Thirumoorthi AS, Kadenhe-Chiweshe A and Kandel JJ: Severe Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection requiring extracorporeal membrane oxygenation with concomitant ischemic stroke in a child. Pediatr Pulmonol. 48:98–101. 2013.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

57 

Fisman DN, Lim S, Wellenius GA, Johnson C, Britz P, Gaskins M, Maher J, Mittleman MA, Spain CV, Haas CN and Newbern C: It's not the heat, it's the humidity: Wet weather increases legionellosis risk in the greater Philadelphia metropolitan area. J Infect Dis. 192:2066–2073. 2005.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

58 

Graham FF, White PS, Harte DJ and Kingham SP: Changing epidemiological trends of legionellosis in New Zealand, 1979-2009. Epidemiol Infect. 140:1481–1496. 2012.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

59 

Johnson DH and Cunha BA: Atypical pneumonias. Clinical and extrapulmonary features of Chlamydia, Mycoplasma, and Legionella infections. Postgrad Med. 93:69–72, 75-76, 79-82. 1993.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

60 

Sharma L, Losier A, Tolbert T, Dela Cruz CS and Marion CR: Atypical Pneumonia: Updates on legionella, chlamydophila, and mycoplasma pneumonia. Clin Chest Med. 38:45–58. 2017.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

61 

McConnell CT Jr, Plouffe JF, File TM, Mueller CF, Wong KH, Skelton SK, Marston BJ and Breiman RF: Radiographic appearance of Chlamydia pneumoniae (TWAR strain) respiratory infections. CBPIS Study Group. Community-based Pneumonia Incidence Study. Radiology. 192:819–824. 1994.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

62 

Kauppinen MT, Lähde S and Syrjälä H: Roentgenographic findings of pneumonia caused by Chlamydia pneumoniae. A comparison with streptococcus pneumonia. Arch Intern Med. 156:1851–1856. 1996.PubMed/NCBI

63 

Boersma WG, Daniels JM, Löwenberg A, Boeve WJ and van de Jagt EJ: Reliability of radiographic findings and the relation to etiologic agents in community-acquired pneumonia. Respir Med. 100:926–932. 2006.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

64 

Nambu A, Saito A, Araki T, Ozawa K, Hiejima Y, Akao M, Ohki Z and Yamaguchi H: Chlamydia pneumoniae: Comparison with findings of Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Streptococcus pneumoniae at thin-section CT. Radiology. 238:330–338. 2006.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

65 

Gong L, Zhang CL and Zhen Q: Analysis of clinical value of CT in the diagnosis of pediatric pneumonia and mycoplasma pneumonia. Exp Ther Med. 11:1271–1274. 2016.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

66 

Mittal S, Singh A, Gold M, Leung AN, Haramati LB and Katz DS: Thoracic imaging features of Legionnaire's disease. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 31:43–54. 2017.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

67 

Evans AF, Oakley RH and Whitehouse GH: Analysis of the chest radiograph in Legionnaires' disease. Clin Radiol. 32:361–365. 1981.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

68 

Tan MJ, Tan JS, Hamor RH, File TM Jr and Breiman RF: The radiologic manifestations of Legionnaire's disease. The ohio community-based pneumonia incidence study group. Chest. 117:398–403. 2000.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

69 

Garg M, Prabhakar N, Gulati A, Agarwal R and Dhooria S: Spectrum of imaging findings in pulmonary infections. Part 1: Bacterial and viral. Pol J Radiol. 84:e205–e213. 2019.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

70 

Burillo A and Bouza E: Chlamydophila pneumoniae. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 24:61–71. 2010.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

71 

Puolakkainen M: Laboratory diagnosis of persistent human chlamydial infection. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 3(99)2013.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

72 

Verkooyen RP, Willemse D, Hiep-van Casteren SC, Joulandan SA, Snijder RJ, van den Bosch JM, van Helden HP, Peeters MF and Verbrugh HA: Evaluation of PCR, culture, and serology for diagnosis of Chlamydia pneumoniae respiratory infections. J Clin Microbiol. 36:2301–2307. 1998.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

73 

Thurman KA, Warner AK, Cowart KC, Benitez AJ and Winchell JM: Detection of Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Chlamydia pneumoniae, and Legionella spp. in clinical specimens using a single-tube multiplex real-time PCR assay. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 70:1–9. 2011.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

74 

Hammerschlag MR, Chirgwin K, Roblin PM, Gelling M, Dumornay W, Mandel L, Smith P and Schachter J: Persistent infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae following acute respiratory illness. Clin Infect Dis. 14:178–182. 1992.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

75 

Jain S, Self WH, Wunderink RG, Fakhran S, Balk R, Bramley AM, Reed C, Grijalva CG, Anderson EJ, Courtney DM, et al: Community-Acquired Pneumonia Requiring Hospitalization among U.S. Adults. N Engl J Med. 373:415–427. 2015.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

76 

Loens K and Ieven M: Mycoplasma pneumoniae: Current knowledge on nucleic acid amplification techniques and serological diagnostics. Front Microbiol. 7(448)2016.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

77 

Youn YS and Lee KY: Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia in children. Korean J Pediatr. 55:42–47. 2012.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

78 

Loens K, Ursi D, Goossens H and Ieven M: Molecular diagnosis of Mycoplasma pneumoniae respiratory tract infections. J Clin Microbiol. 41:4915–4923. 2003.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

79 

Herrera M, Aguilar YA, Rueda ZV, Muskus C and Vélez LA: Comparison of serological methods with PCR-based methods for the diagnosis of community-acquired pneumonia caused by atypical bacteria. J Negat Results Biomed. 15(3)2016.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

80 

Loens K, Van Heirstraeten L, Malhotra-Kumar S, Goossens H and Ieven M: Optimal sampling sites and methods for detection of pathogens possibly causing community-acquired lower respiratory tract infections. J Clin Microbiol. 47:21–31. 2009.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

81 

Phin N, Parry-Ford F, Harrison T, Stagg HR, Zhang N, Kumar K, Lortholary O, Zumla A and Abubakar I: Epidemiology and clinical management of Legionnaires' disease. Lancet Infect Dis. 14:1011–1021. 2014.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

82 

Avni T, Bieber A, Green H, Steinmetz T, Leibovici L and Paul M: Diagnostic Accuracy of PCR Alone and compared to urinary antigen testing for detection of legionella spp: A systematic review. J Clin Microbiol. 54:401–411. 2016.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

83 

Nieuwenhuizen AA, Dijkstra F, Notermans DW and van der Hoek W: Laboratory methods for case finding in human psittacosis outbreaks: A systematic review. BMC Infect Dis. 18(442)2018.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

84 

She RC, Thurber A, Hymas WC, Stevenson J, Langer J, Litwin CM and Petti CA: Limited utility of culture for Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Chlamydophila pneumoniae for diagnosis of respiratory tract infections. J Clin Microbiol. 48:3380–3382. 2010.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

85 

Hyman CL, Roblin PM, Gaydos CA, Quinn TC, Schachter J and Hammerschlag MR: Prevalence of asymptomatic nasopharyngeal carriage of Chlamydia pneumoniae in subjectively healthy adults: Assessment by polymerase chain reaction-enzyme immunoassay and culture. Clin Infect Dis. 20:1174–1178. 1995.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

86 

Kohlhoff SA and Hammerschlag MR: Treatment of Chlamydial infections: 2014 update. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 16:205–212. 2015.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

87 

Roblin PM, Kohlhoff SA, Parker C and Hammerschlag MR: In vitro activity of CEM-101, a new fluoroketolide antibiotic, against Chlamydia trachomatis and Chlamydia (Chlamydophila) pneumoniae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 54:1358–1359. 2010.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

88 

Chotikanatis K, Kohlhoff SA and Hammerschlag MR: In vitro activity of nemonoxacin, a novel nonfluorinated quinolone antibiotic, against Chlamydia trachomatis and Chlamydia pneumoniae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 58:1800–1801. 2014.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

89 

Biedenbach DJ, Huband MD, Hackel M, de Jonge BL, Sahm DF and Bradford PA: In vitro activity of AZD0914, a novel bacterial DNA gyrase/topoisomerase IV inhibitor, against clinically relevant gram-positive and fastidious gram-negative pathogens. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 59:6053–6063. 2015.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

90 

Van Rensburg DJ, Perng RP, Mitha IH, Bester AJ, Kasumba J, Wu RG, Ho ML, Chang LW, Chung DT, Chang YT, et al: Efficacy and safety of nemonoxacin versus levofloxacin for community-acquired pneumonia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 54:4098–4106. 2010.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

91 

Liu Y, Zhang Y, Wu J, Zhu D, Sun S, Zhao L, Wang X, Liu H, Ren Z, Wang C, et al: A randomized, double-blind, multicenter Phase II study comparing the efficacy and safety of oral nemonoxacin with oral levofloxacin in the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia. J Microbiol Immunol Infect. 50:811–820. 2017.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

92 

Barrera CM, Mykietiuk A, Metev H, Nitu MF, Karimjee N, Doreski PA, Mitha I, Tanaseanu CM, Molina JM, Antonovsky Y, et al: Efficacy and safety of oral solithromycin versus oral moxifloxacin for treatment of community-acquired bacterial pneumonia: A global, double-blind, multicentre, randomised, active-controlled, non-inferiority trial (SOLITAIRE-ORAL). Lancet Infect Dis. 16:421–430. 2016.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

93 

Mandell LA, Wunderink RG, Anzueto A, Bartlett JG, Campbell GD, Dean NC, Dowell SF, File TM Jr, Musher DM, Niederman MS, et al: Infectious Diseases Society of America/American Thoracic Society consensus guidelines on the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Clin Infect Dis. 44 (Suppl 2):S27–S72. 2007.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

94 

Kashyap S and Sarkar M: Mycoplasma pneumonia: Clinical features and management. Lung India. 27:75–85. 2010.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

95 

Cao B, Zhao CJ, Yin YD, Zhao F, Song SF, Bai L, Zhang JZ, Liu YM, Zhang YY, Wang H and Wang C: High prevalence of macrolide resistance in Mycoplasma pneumoniae isolates from adult and adolescent patients with respiratory tract infection in China. Clin Infect Dis. 51:189–194. 2010.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

96 

Shimizu T: Inflammation-inducing Factors of Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Front Microbiol. 7(414)2016.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

97 

Principi N and Esposito S: Emerging role of Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Chlamydia pneumoniae in paediatric respiratory-tract infections. Lancet Infect Dis. 1:334–344. 2001.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

98 

Sánchez-Vargas FM and Gómez-Duarte OG: Mycoplasma pneumoniae-an emerging extra-pulmonary pathogen. Clin Microbiol Infect. 14:105–117. 2008.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

99 

Gacouin A, Le Tulzo Y, Lavoue S, Camus C, Hoff J, Bassen R, Arvieux C, Heurtin C and Thomas R: Severe pneumonia due to Legionella pneumophila: prognostic factors, impact of delayed appropriate antimicrobial therapy. Intensive Care Med. 28:686–691. 2002.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

100 

Heath CH, Grove DI and Looke DF: Delay in appropriate therapy of Legionella pneumonia associated with increased mortality. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 15:286–290. 1996.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

101 

Edelstein PH: Legionnaires' disease. Clin Infect Dis. 16:741–747. 1993.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

102 

Swanson DJ, Sung RJ, Fine MJ, Orloff JJ, Chu SY and Yu VL: Erythromycin ototoxicity: Prospective assessment with serum concentrations and audiograms in a study of patients with pneumonia. Am J Med. 92:61–68. 1992.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

103 

Howden BP, Stuart RL, Tallis G, Bailey M and Johnson PD: Treatment and outcome of 104 hospitalized patients with legionnaires' disease. Intern Med J. 33:484–488. 2003.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

104 

Plouffe JF, Breiman RF, Fields BS, Herbert M, Inverso J, Knirsch C, Kolokathis A, Marrie TJ, Nicolle L and Schwartz DB: Azithromycin in the treatment of Legionella pneumonia requiring hospitalization. Clin Infect Dis. 37:1475–1480. 2003.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

105 

Dorrell L, Fulton B and Ong EL: Intravenous azithromycin as salvage therapy in a patient with Legionnaire's disease. Thorax. 49:620–621. 1994.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

106 

Sabrià M, Pedro-Botet ML, Gómez J, Roig J, Vilaseca B, Sopena N and Baños V: Legionnaires Disease Therapy Group. Fluoroquinolones vs macrolides in the treatment of Legionnaires disease. Chest. 128:1401–1405. 2005.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

107 

Dunbar LM, Khashab MM, Kahn JB, Zadeikis N, Xiang JX and Tennenberg AM: Efficacy of 750-mg, 5-day levofloxacin in the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia caused by atypical pathogens. Curr Med Res Opin. 20:555–563. 2004.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

108 

Burdet C, Lepeule R, Duval X, Caseris M, Rioux C, Lucet JC and Yazdanpanah Y: Quinolones versus macrolides in the treatment of legionellosis: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Antimicrob Chemother. 69:2354–2360. 2014.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

109 

Bruin JP, Koshkolda T, IJzerman EP, Lück C, Diederen BM, Den Boer JW and Mouton JW: Isolation of ciprofloxacin-resistant Legionella pneumophila in a patient with severe pneumonia. J Antimicrob Chemother. 69:2869–2871. 2014.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

110 

Shadoud L, Almahmoud I, Jarraud S, Etienne J, Larrat S, Schwebel C, Timsit JF, Schneider D and Maurin M: Hidden Selection of Bacterial Resistance to Fluoroquinolones In Vivo: The Case of Legionella pneumophila and Humans. EBioMedicine. 2:1179–1185. 2015.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

111 

Arnold FW, Summersgill JT and Ramirez JA: Role of atypical pathogens in the etiology of community-acquired pneumonia. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 37:819–828. 2016.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

112 

Georgakopoulou VE, Lempesis IG, Sklapani P, Trakas N and Spandidos DA: Exploring the pathogenetic mechanisms of Mycoplasma pneumonia (Review). Exp Ther Med. 28(271)2024.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

113 

Waites KB, Xiao L, Liu Y, Balish MF and Atkinson TP: Mycoplasma pneumoniae from the respiratory tract and beyond. Clin Microbiol Rev. 30:747–809. 2017.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

114 

Liu KT, Yang KY, Lee YC and Perng RP: Risk factor analysis of acute respiratory distress syndrome amoςινφng hospitalized patients with Chlamydophila pneumoniae pneumonia. J Chin Med Assoc. 70:318–323. 2007.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

115 

Wingfield T, Rowell S, Peel A, Puli D, Guleri A and Sharma R: Legionella pneumonia cases over a five-year period: A descriptive, retrospective study of outcomes in a UK district hospital. Clin Med (Lond). 13:152–159. 2013.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

116 

Housset B: Rising to the challenge of resistance: A case study-based discussion. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 29 (Suppl 1):S11–S16. 2007.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

117 

Cunningham AF, Johnston SL, Julious SA, Lampe FC and Ward ME: Chronic Chlamydia pneumoniae infection and asthma exacerbations in children. Eur Respir J. 11:345–349. 1998.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

118 

Von Hertzen L, Töyrylä M, Gimishanov A, Bloigu A, Leinonen M, Saikku P and Haahtela T: Asthma, atopy and Chlamydia pneumoniae antibodies in adults. Clin Exp Allergy. 29:522–528. 1999.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

119 

Koyi H, Brandén E, Gnarpe J, Gnarpe H and Steen B: An association between chronic infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae and lung cancer. A prospective 2-year study. APMIS. 109:572–580. 2001.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

120 

Kocazeybek B: Chronic Chlamydophila pneumoniae infection in lung cancer, a risk factor: A case-control study. J Med Microbiol. 52:721–726. 2003.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

121 

Littman AJ, White E, Jackson LA, Thornquist MD, Gaydos CA, Goodman GE and Vaughan TL: Chlamydia pneumoniae infection and risk of lung cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 13:1624–1630. 2004.PubMed/NCBI

122 

Koh WP, Chow VT, Phoon MC, Ramachandran N and Seow A: Lack of association between chronic Chlamydophila pneumoniae infection and lung cancer among nonsmoking Chinese women in Singapore. Int J Cancer. 114:502–504. 2005.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

123 

Xue L, Liang YH, Gao YY and Wang XJ: Clinical study of chlamydia pneumoniae infection in patients with coronary heart disease. BMC Cardiovasc Disord. 19(110)2019.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

124 

Dogra J: Oral azithromycin in extended dosage schedule for chronic, subclinical Chlamydia pneumoniae infection causing coronary artery disease: A probable cure in sight? Results of a controlled preliminary trial. Int J Gen Med. 5:505–509. 2012.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

125 

Su X and Chen HL: Chlamydia pneumoniae infection and cerebral infarction risk: A meta-analysis. Int J Stroke. 9:356–364. 2014.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

126 

Huong Ple T, Hien PT, Lan NT, Binh TQ, Tuan DM and Anh DD: First report on prevalence and risk factors of severe atypical pneumonia in Vietnamese children aged 1-15 years. BMC Public Health. 14(1304)2014.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

127 

Morozumi M, Iwata S, Hasegawa K, Chiba N, Takayanagi R, Matsubara K, Nakayama E, Sunakawa K and Ubukata K: Acute Respiratory Diseases Study Group. Increased macrolide resistance of Mycoplasma pneumoniae in pediatric patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 52:348–350. 2008.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

128 

Dumke R, von Baum H, Lück PC and Jacobs E: Occurrence of macrolide-resistant Mycoplasma pneumoniae strains in Germany. Clin Microbiol Infect. 16:613–616. 2010.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

129 

Peuchant O, Ménard A, Renaudin H, Morozumi M, Ubukata K, Bébéar CM and Pereyre S: Increased macrolide resistance of Mycoplasma pneumoniae in France directly detected in clinical specimens by real-time PCR and melting curve analysis. J Antimicrob Chemother. 64:52–58. 2009.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

130 

Principi N and Esposito S: Macrolide-resistant Mycoplasma pneumoniae: Its role in respiratory infection. J Antimicrob Chemother. 68:506–511. 2013.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

131 

Zhou Y, Zhang Y, Sheng Y, Zhang L, Shen Z and Chen Z: More complications occur in macrolide-resistant than in macrolide-sensitive Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 58:1034–1038. 2014.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

132 

Gautam J and Krawiec C: Chlamydia Pneumonia. StatPearls Publishing, Treasure Island, FL, 2024. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK560874/.

133 

Marchese S, Marchese G, Paviglianiti G, Lapi M, Ottoveggio G, Pipitone G and Corsello G: A pediatric case of Chlamydia psittaci caused severe Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) in Italy. Ital J Pediatr. 49(107)2023.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

134 

Hashimoto K, Nishimura S and Akagi M: Lung adenocarcinoma presenting as a soft tissue metastasis to the shoulder: A case report. Medicina (Kaunas). 57(181)2021.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar

Related Articles

  • Abstract
  • View
  • Download
  • Twitter
Copy and paste a formatted citation
Spandidos Publications style
Georgakopoulou VE, Lempesis IG, Tarantinos K, Sklapani P, Trakas N and Spandidos DA: Atypical pneumonia (Review). Exp Ther Med 28: 424, 2024.
APA
Georgakopoulou, V.E., Lempesis, I.G., Tarantinos, K., Sklapani, P., Trakas, N., & Spandidos, D.A. (2024). Atypical pneumonia (Review). Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine, 28, 424. https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2024.12713
MLA
Georgakopoulou, V. E., Lempesis, I. G., Tarantinos, K., Sklapani, P., Trakas, N., Spandidos, D. A."Atypical pneumonia (Review)". Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine 28.5 (2024): 424.
Chicago
Georgakopoulou, V. E., Lempesis, I. G., Tarantinos, K., Sklapani, P., Trakas, N., Spandidos, D. A."Atypical pneumonia (Review)". Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine 28, no. 5 (2024): 424. https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2024.12713
Copy and paste a formatted citation
x
Spandidos Publications style
Georgakopoulou VE, Lempesis IG, Tarantinos K, Sklapani P, Trakas N and Spandidos DA: Atypical pneumonia (Review). Exp Ther Med 28: 424, 2024.
APA
Georgakopoulou, V.E., Lempesis, I.G., Tarantinos, K., Sklapani, P., Trakas, N., & Spandidos, D.A. (2024). Atypical pneumonia (Review). Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine, 28, 424. https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2024.12713
MLA
Georgakopoulou, V. E., Lempesis, I. G., Tarantinos, K., Sklapani, P., Trakas, N., Spandidos, D. A."Atypical pneumonia (Review)". Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine 28.5 (2024): 424.
Chicago
Georgakopoulou, V. E., Lempesis, I. G., Tarantinos, K., Sklapani, P., Trakas, N., Spandidos, D. A."Atypical pneumonia (Review)". Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine 28, no. 5 (2024): 424. https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2024.12713
Follow us
  • Twitter
  • LinkedIn
  • Facebook
About
  • Spandidos Publications
  • Careers
  • Cookie Policy
  • Privacy Policy
How can we help?
  • Help
  • Live Chat
  • Contact
  • Email to our Support Team