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Article

Imiquimod promotes Th1 and Th17 responses via NF‑κB‑driven IL‑12 and IL‑6 production in an in vitro co‑culture model

  • Authors:
    • Yerim Cho
    • Jiho Kwon
    • Tae Sung Kim
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    Affiliations: Department of Life Sciences, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
  • Article Number: 175
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    Published online on: July 21, 2025
       https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2025.12925
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Abstract

Although imiquimod (IMQ) is widely used to induce psoriasis‑like inflammation in mouse models, its direct effects on dendritic cells (DCs) and their capacity to drive T cell polarization remain poorly defined. The systemic complexity of in vivo models hinders the ability to delineate the direct, cell‑intrinsic effects of IMQ. To address this gap, an in vitro DC‑CD4+ T cell co‑culture system was established using bone marrow‑derived DCs and naïve CD4+ T cells isolated from OT‑II mice, enabling precise evaluation of the direct immunomodulatory effects of IMQ. IMQ treatment markedly upregulated maturation markers (CD40, CD80, CD86 and major histocompatibility complex class II), and increased IL‑12 and IL‑6 secretion in a dose‑dependent manner. These effects were significantly attenuated by NF‑κB inhibitors (caffeic acid phenethyl ester and Bay 11‑7082), indicating a critical role for NF‑κB signaling in DC activation. When co‑cultured with naïve CD4+ T cells, IMQ‑treated DCs promoted robust differentiation toward T helper (Th)1 and Th17 subsets. Neutralization of IL‑12 and IL‑6 in the co‑culture system significantly reduced the frequencies of Th1 and Th17 cells and their cytokine output, confirming that these responses were mediated by DC‑derived cytokines. Collectively, the present findings demonstrated that IMQ directly activated DCs via NF‑κB signaling and induced pathogenic Th cell responses through IL‑12 and IL‑6 production. By eliminating confounding in vivo factors, the present study provided evidence for the DC‑intrinsic effects of IMQ and offered mechanistic insights into the cellular pathways linking innate immune sensing to adaptive T cell responses in psoriasis.
View Figures

Figure 1

IMQ increases the expression of
surface molecules in bone marrow-derived dendritic cells. (A) Flow
cytometry analysis of CD40, CD80, CD86 and MHCII on
CD11c+ cells following IMQ or LPS treatment. (B) Bar
graphs showing fold changes in MFI relative to medium-treated
controls. Data are presented as the mean ± SD (n=3; biological
replicates). *P<0.05, **P<0.01,
***P<0.001 and ****P<0.0001 vs. medium
group; as determined using one-way ANOVA followed by the Bonferroni
post hoc test. IMQ, imiquimod; LPS, lipopolysaccharide; MFI, mean
fluorescence intensity; MHC, major histocompatibility complex.

Figure 2

IMQ induces release of
pro-inflammatory cytokines in DCs. (A) Reverse transcription-PCR
was used to assess mRNA expression levels of IL-12p35, IL-12p40,
IL-6, TNF-α and IL-1β following IMQ or LPS stimulation. (B) Bar
graphs depicting the fold ratio of mRNA expression relative to the
medium-treated group. (C) ELISAs quantified the secretion levels of
pro-inflammatory cytokines in the supernatants. Data are presented
as the mean ± SD (n=3; biological replicates). Statistical
significance was assessed using one-way ANOVA followed by the
Bonferroni post hoc test; *P<0.05,
**P<0.01 and ****P<0.0001 compared with
the medium-treated DCs. DC, dendritic cell; IMQ, imiquimod; LPS,
lipopolysaccharide; M, media.

Figure 3

IMQ increases expression levels of
surface markers and pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion in DCs via
the NF-κB signaling pathway. (A) CD11c+ DCs were
pre-treated with CAPE or BAY (1 µM) for 30 min, followed by IMQ (1
µg/ml) for 20 h. Flow cytometry was performed to examine CD40,
CD80, CD86 and MHCII expression. (B) Quantification of the MFI for
the markers shown in (A), presented as fold changes relative to
medium-treated controls. (C) DCs were pre-treated with varying
doses of CAPE, an NF-κB inhibitor, before IMQ treatment, and IL-6
and IL-12p40 levels in the supernatant were assessed using ELISAs.
(D) DCs were pre-treated with varying doses of BAY, another NF-κB
inhibitor, before IMQ treatment, and IL-6 and IL-12p40 levels were
measured using ELISAs. Data are presented as the mean ± SD (n=3;
biological replicates). ***P<0.001 and
****P<0.0001 vs. medium group;
##P<0.01, ###P<0.001, and
####P<0.0001 vs. IMQ group, as determined using
one-way ANOVA with the Bonferroni post hoc test. BAY, Bay 11-7082;
CAPE, caffeic acid phenethyl ester; DC, dendritic cell; IMQ,
imiquimod; MFI, mean fluorescence intensity; MHC, major
histocompatibility complex.

Figure 4

IMQ promotes activation and
maturation of DCs via the NF-κB-dependent signaling pathway.
Immature DCs were treated with IMQ (1 µg/ml) or LPS (100 ng/ml) for
1 h. (A) Confocal laser scanning microscopy was used to detect
nuclear translocation of NF-κB p65 in IMQ-treated DCs. Scale bar,
10 µm. (B) Bar graph showing the fold ratio of fluorescence
intensity of nuclear p65 compared with the medium group. Data are
presented as the mean ± SD (n=3; biological replicates).
**P<0.01 vs. medium group, analyzed by one-way ANOVA
with the Bonferroni post hoc test. DC, dendritic cell; IMQ,
imiquimod; LPS, lipopolysaccharide; MFI, mean fluorescence
intensity.

Figure 5

IMQ-treated DCs induce polarization
of OT-II naive CD4+ T cells to pathogenic Th1 and Th17
subsets. Immature DCs were treated with ovalbumin (20 ng/ml) for 2
h, followed by IMQ (1 µg/ml) or LPS (100 ng/ml) stimulation for 6
h. The DCs were then co-cultured with OT-II CD4+ T cells
at a 1:10 ratio for 3 days. (A) Flow cytometry was used to assess
IFN-γ+ and IL-17A+ CD4+ T cells.
(B) Frequency of IFN-γ+ and IL-17A+
CD4+ T cells is shown as the mean ± SD (n=3; biological
replicates). (C) IFN-γ and IL-17A secretion was measured using
ELISAs. *P<0.05 and **P<0.01 vs. medium
group; one-way ANOVA with the Bonferroni post hoc test. DC,
dendritic cell; IMQ, imiquimod; LPS, lipopolysaccharide; Th, T
helper.

Figure 6

IMQ-treated DCs promote the
polarization of Th1 and Th17 subsets via IL-12 and IL-6 production.
DCs were pulsed with ovalbumin (20 ng/ml) for 2 h, followed by IMQ
(1 µg/ml) for 6 h, and co-cultured with OT-II CD4+ T
cells at a 1:10 ratio for 3 days in the presence of anti-IL-12,
anti-IL-6 or isotype control antibodies (1 and 10 µg/ml). (A) Flow
cytometry was used to analyze the populations of IFN-γ+
and IL-17A+ CD4+ T cells. (B) Percentages of
IFN-γ+ and IL-17A+ CD4+ T cells
are presented as the mean ± SD (n=3; biological replicates). (C)
IFN-γ and IL-17A protein levels in supernatants were measured using
ELISAs. **P<0.01 and ***P<0.001 vs.
CD4+ T cells co-cultured with media-treated DCs;
#P<0.05, ##P<0.01 and
###P<0.001 vs. IMQ group; one-way ANOVA with the
Bonferroni post hoc test. Ab, antibody; DC, dendritic cell; IMQ,
imiquimod; Th, T helper.
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Copy and paste a formatted citation
Spandidos Publications style
Cho Y, Kwon J and Kim TS: Imiquimod promotes Th1 and Th17 responses via NF‑&kappa;B‑driven IL‑12 and IL‑6 production in an <em>in vitro</em> co‑culture model. Exp Ther Med 30: 175, 2025.
APA
Cho, Y., Kwon, J., & Kim, T.S. (2025). Imiquimod promotes Th1 and Th17 responses via NF‑&kappa;B‑driven IL‑12 and IL‑6 production in an <em>in vitro</em> co‑culture model. Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine, 30, 175. https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2025.12925
MLA
Cho, Y., Kwon, J., Kim, T. S."Imiquimod promotes Th1 and Th17 responses via NF‑&kappa;B‑driven IL‑12 and IL‑6 production in an <em>in vitro</em> co‑culture model". Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine 30.3 (2025): 175.
Chicago
Cho, Y., Kwon, J., Kim, T. S."Imiquimod promotes Th1 and Th17 responses via NF‑&kappa;B‑driven IL‑12 and IL‑6 production in an <em>in vitro</em> co‑culture model". Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine 30, no. 3 (2025): 175. https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2025.12925
Copy and paste a formatted citation
x
Spandidos Publications style
Cho Y, Kwon J and Kim TS: Imiquimod promotes Th1 and Th17 responses via NF‑&kappa;B‑driven IL‑12 and IL‑6 production in an <em>in vitro</em> co‑culture model. Exp Ther Med 30: 175, 2025.
APA
Cho, Y., Kwon, J., & Kim, T.S. (2025). Imiquimod promotes Th1 and Th17 responses via NF‑&kappa;B‑driven IL‑12 and IL‑6 production in an <em>in vitro</em> co‑culture model. Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine, 30, 175. https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2025.12925
MLA
Cho, Y., Kwon, J., Kim, T. S."Imiquimod promotes Th1 and Th17 responses via NF‑&kappa;B‑driven IL‑12 and IL‑6 production in an <em>in vitro</em> co‑culture model". Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine 30.3 (2025): 175.
Chicago
Cho, Y., Kwon, J., Kim, T. S."Imiquimod promotes Th1 and Th17 responses via NF‑&kappa;B‑driven IL‑12 and IL‑6 production in an <em>in vitro</em> co‑culture model". Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine 30, no. 3 (2025): 175. https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2025.12925
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