Spandidos Publications Logo
  • About
    • About Spandidos
    • Aims and Scopes
    • Abstracting and Indexing
    • Editorial Policies
    • Reprints and Permissions
    • Job Opportunities
    • Terms and Conditions
    • Contact
  • Journals
    • All Journals
    • Oncology Letters
      • Oncology Letters
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • International Journal of Oncology
      • International Journal of Oncology
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Molecular and Clinical Oncology
      • Molecular and Clinical Oncology
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine
      • Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • International Journal of Molecular Medicine
      • International Journal of Molecular Medicine
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Biomedical Reports
      • Biomedical Reports
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Oncology Reports
      • Oncology Reports
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Molecular Medicine Reports
      • Molecular Medicine Reports
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • World Academy of Sciences Journal
      • World Academy of Sciences Journal
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • International Journal of Functional Nutrition
      • International Journal of Functional Nutrition
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • International Journal of Epigenetics
      • International Journal of Epigenetics
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Medicine International
      • Medicine International
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
  • Articles
  • Information
    • Information for Authors
    • Information for Reviewers
    • Information for Librarians
    • Information for Advertisers
    • Conferences
  • Language Editing
Spandidos Publications Logo
  • About
    • About Spandidos
    • Aims and Scopes
    • Abstracting and Indexing
    • Editorial Policies
    • Reprints and Permissions
    • Job Opportunities
    • Terms and Conditions
    • Contact
  • Journals
    • All Journals
    • Biomedical Reports
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • International Journal of Epigenetics
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • International Journal of Functional Nutrition
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • International Journal of Molecular Medicine
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • International Journal of Oncology
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Medicine International
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Molecular and Clinical Oncology
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Molecular Medicine Reports
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Oncology Letters
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Oncology Reports
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • World Academy of Sciences Journal
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
  • Articles
  • Information
    • For Authors
    • For Reviewers
    • For Librarians
    • For Advertisers
    • Conferences
  • Language Editing
Login Register Submit
  • This site uses cookies
  • You can change your cookie settings at any time by following the instructions in our Cookie Policy. To find out more, you may read our Privacy Policy.

    I agree
Search articles by DOI, keyword, author or affiliation
Search
Advanced Search
presentation
Molecular Medicine Reports
Join Editorial Board Propose a Special Issue
Print ISSN: 1791-2997 Online ISSN: 1791-3004
Journal Cover
June-2017 Volume 15 Issue 6

Full Size Image

Sign up for eToc alerts
Recommend to Library

Journals

International Journal of Molecular Medicine

International Journal of Molecular Medicine

International Journal of Molecular Medicine is an international journal devoted to molecular mechanisms of human disease.

International Journal of Oncology

International Journal of Oncology

International Journal of Oncology is an international journal devoted to oncology research and cancer treatment.

Molecular Medicine Reports

Molecular Medicine Reports

Covers molecular medicine topics such as pharmacology, pathology, genetics, neuroscience, infectious diseases, molecular cardiology, and molecular surgery.

Oncology Reports

Oncology Reports

Oncology Reports is an international journal devoted to fundamental and applied research in Oncology.

Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine

Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine

Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine is an international journal devoted to laboratory and clinical medicine.

Oncology Letters

Oncology Letters

Oncology Letters is an international journal devoted to Experimental and Clinical Oncology.

Biomedical Reports

Biomedical Reports

Explores a wide range of biological and medical fields, including pharmacology, genetics, microbiology, neuroscience, and molecular cardiology.

Molecular and Clinical Oncology

Molecular and Clinical Oncology

International journal addressing all aspects of oncology research, from tumorigenesis and oncogenes to chemotherapy and metastasis.

World Academy of Sciences Journal

World Academy of Sciences Journal

Multidisciplinary open-access journal spanning biochemistry, genetics, neuroscience, environmental health, and synthetic biology.

International Journal of Functional Nutrition

International Journal of Functional Nutrition

Open-access journal combining biochemistry, pharmacology, immunology, and genetics to advance health through functional nutrition.

International Journal of Epigenetics

International Journal of Epigenetics

Publishes open-access research on using epigenetics to advance understanding and treatment of human disease.

Medicine International

Medicine International

An International Open Access Journal Devoted to General Medicine.

Journal Cover
June-2017 Volume 15 Issue 6

Full Size Image

Sign up for eToc alerts
Recommend to Library

  • Article
  • Citations
    • Cite This Article
    • Download Citation
    • Create Citation Alert
    • Remove Citation Alert
    • Cited By
  • Similar Articles
    • Related Articles (in Spandidos Publications)
    • Similar Articles (Google Scholar)
    • Similar Articles (PubMed)
  • Download PDF
  • Download XML
  • View XML
Article

Synchronized dual pulse gastric electrical stimulation improves gastric emptying and activates enteric glial cells via upregulation of GFAP and S100B with different courses of subdiaphragmatic vagotomy in rats

  • Authors:
    • Nian Wang
    • Shuangning Song
    • Jie Chen
  • View Affiliations / Copyright

    Affiliations: Division of Gastroenterology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430022, P.R. China
  • Pages: 3826-3832
    |
    Published online on: April 12, 2017
       https://doi.org/10.3892/mmr.2017.6471
  • Expand metrics +
Metrics: Total Views: 0 (Spandidos Publications: | PMC Statistics: )
Metrics: Total PDF Downloads: 0 (Spandidos Publications: | PMC Statistics: )
Cited By (CrossRef): 0 citations Loading Articles...

This article is mentioned in:



Abstract

Previous research and clinical practice have indicated that damage to the vagal nerve may seriously affect gastrointestinal physiological movement behavior. The aim of the current study was to observe the change of gastric motility, as well as enteric glial cells (EGCs) in the stomach with different courses of vagal nerve transection in rats prior to and following synchronized dual pulse gastric electrical stimulation. The gastric emptying rates were measured to assess the gastric motility. The glial markers, containing calcium binding protein (S100B) and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), were detected by reverse transcription‑quantitative polymerase chain reaction and double‑labeling immunofluorescence analysis. Ultrastructural changes of EGCs were observed using transmission electron microscopy. Gastric emptying was delayed in the terminal vagotomy group, compared with the terminal control group. The effect of long‑term synchronized dual pulse gastric electrical stimulation (SGES) was superior to short‑term SGES in terminal groups. The expression levels of S100B/GFAP were markedly decreased in the terminal vagotomy group compared with the terminal control group. Following short‑term or long‑term SGES, S100B/GFAP gene and protein expression increased in terminal groups. However, long‑term SGES was more effective than short‑term SGES and the difference was statistically significant. Vagal nerve damage leads to gastric motility disorder and weakens the function of EGCs. Therefore, SGES may improve stomach movement behavior and restore the impaired EGCs. The underlying mechanism of the effect remains elusive, but maybe associated with activation of EGCs.
View Figures

Figure 1

Figure 2

Figure 3

Figure 4

View References

1 

Coronado VG, Xu L, Basavaraju SV, McGuire LC, Wald MM, Faul MD, Guzman BR and Hemphill JD; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), : Surveillance for Traumatic Brain Injury-Deaths-United States, 1997–2007. MMWR Surveill Summ. 60:1–32. 2011.PubMed/NCBI

2 

Kao CH, ChangLai SP, Chieng PU and Yen TC: Gastric emptying in head-injured patients. Am J Gastroenterol. 93:1108–1112. 1998. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

3 

Pinto TF, Rocha R, Paula CA and de Jesus RP: Tolerance to enteral nutrition therapy in traumatic brain injury patients. Brain Inj. 26:1113–1117. 2012. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

4 

Fynne L, Worsoe J, Gregersen T, Schlageter V, Laurberg S and Krogh K: Gastric and small intestinal dysfunction in spinal cord injury patients. Acta Neurol Scand. 125:123–138. 2012. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

5 

Song J, Yin J, Sallam HS, Bai T, Chen Y and Chen JD: Electroacupuncture improves burn-induced impairment in gastric motility mediated via the vagal mechanism in rats. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 25:807–e635. 2013.PubMed/NCBI

6 

Zhou SY, Lu YX and Owyang C: Gastric relaxation induced by hyperglycemia is mediated by vagal afferent pathways in the rat. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 294:G1158–G1164. 2008. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

7 

Chen J, Koothan T and Chen JD: Synchronized gastric electrical stimulation improves vagotomy-induced impairment in gastric accommodation via the nitrergic pathway in dogs. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 296:G310–G318. 2009. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

8 

Furness JB: The Enteric Nervous System. Blackwell Publishing; Oxford: pp. 2742006

9 

Gulbransen BD: Enteric glia. Morgan & Claypool Publishers; San Rafael, CA: 2014, PubMed/NCBI

10 

De Giorgio R, Giancola F, Boschetti E, Abdo H, Lardeux B and Neunlist M: Enteric glia and neuroprotection: Basic and clinical aspects. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 303:G887–G893. 2012. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

11 

Bassotti G, Villanacci V, Nascimbeni R, Cadei M, Manenti S, Antonelli E, Fanini L and Salerni B: Increase of colonic mast cells in obstructed defecation and their relationship with enteric glia. Dig Dis Sci. 57:65–71. 2012. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

12 

McClain JL, Grubišić V, Fried D, Gomez-Suarez RA, Leinninger GM, Sévigny J, Parpura V and Gulbransen BD: Ca2+ responses in enteric glia are mediated by connexin-43 hemichannels and modulate colonic transit in mice. Gastroenterol. 146:497–507.e1. 2014. View Article : Google Scholar

13 

Collares EF and Vinagre AM: Evidence of the effect of dipyrone on the central nervous system as a determinant of delayed gastric emptying observed in rats after its administration. Braz J Med Biol Res. 36:1375–1382. 2003. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

14 

Yang W, Wang N, Shi X and Chen J: Synchronized dual pulse gastric electrical stimulation induces activation of enteric glial cells in rats with diabetic gastroparesis. Gastroenterol Res Pract. 2014:9640712014. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

15 

Di Marzo V, Capasso R, Matias I, Aviello G, Petrosino S, Borrelli F, Romano B, Orlando P, Capasso F and Izzo AA: The role of endocannabinoids in the regulation of gastric emptying: Alterations in mice fed a high-fat diet. Br J Pharmacol. 153:1272–1280. 2008. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

16 

Livak KJ and Schmittgen TD: Analysis of relative gene expression data using real-time quantitative PCR and the 2(−Delta Delta C(T)) method. Methods. 25:402–408. 2001. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

17 

Tanaka T, Kendrick ML, Zyromski NJ, Meile T and Sarr MG: Vagal innervation modulates motor pattern but not initiation of canine gastric migrating motor complex. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 281:G283–G292. 2001.PubMed/NCBI

18 

Costantini TW, Bansal V, Krzyzaniak M, Putnam JG, Peterson CY, Loomis WH, Wolf P, Baird A, Eliceiri BP and Coimbra R: Vagal nerve stimulation protects against burn-induced intestinal injury through activation of enteric glia cells. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 299:G1308–G1318. 2010. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

19 

Gulbransen BD, Bains JS and Sharkey KA: Enteric glia are targets of the sympathetic innervation of the myentericplexus in the guinea pig distal colon. J Neurosci. 30:6801–6809. 2010. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

20 

von Boyen GB, Steinkamp M, Reinshagen M, Schäfer KH, Adler G and Kirsch J: Proinflammatory cytokines increase glial fibrillary acidic protein expression in enteric glia. Gut. 53:222–228. 2004. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

21 

Du F, Wang L, Qian W and Liu S: Loss of enteric neurons accompanied by decreased expression of GDNF and PI3K/Akt pathway in diabetic rats. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 21:1229–e114. 2009. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

22 

Savidge TC, Newman P, Pothoulakis C, Ruhl A, Neunlist M, Bourreille A, Hurst R and Sofroniew MV: Enteric glia regulate intestinal barrier function and inflammation via release of S-nitrosoglutathione. Gastroenterol. 132:1344–1358. 2007. View Article : Google Scholar

23 

Nasser Y, Keenan CM, Ma AC, McCafferty DM and Sharkey KA: Expression of a functional metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 on enteric glia is altered in states of inflammation. Glia. 55:859–872. 2007. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

24 

Xiao W, Wang W, Chen W, Sun L, Li X, Zhang C and Yang H: GDNF is involved in the barrier-inducing effect of enteric glial cells on intestinal epithelial cells under acute ischemia reperfusion stimulation. Mol Neurobiol. 50:274–289. 2014. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

25 

Cheadle GA, Costantini TW, Bansal V, Eliceiri BP and Coimbra R: Cholinergic signaling in the gut: A novel mechanism of barrier protection through activation of enteric glia cells. Surg Infect (Larchmt). 15:387–393. 2014. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

26 

Selgrad M, De Giorgio R, Fini L, Cogliandro RF, Williams S, Stanghellini V, Barbara G, Tonini M, Corinaldesi R, Genta RM, et al: JC virus infects the enteric glia of patients with chronic idiopathic intestinal pseudo-obstruction. Gut. 58:25–32. 2009. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

27 

Stenkamp-Strahm C, Patterson S, Boren J, Gericke M and Balemba O: High-fat diet and age-dependent effects on enteric glial cell populations of mouse small intestine. Auton Neurosci. 177:199–210. 2013. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

28 

Bassotti G, Villanacci V, Maurer CA, Fisogni S, Di Fabio F, Cadei M, Morelli A, Panagiotis T, Cathomas G and Salerni B: The role of glial cells and apoptosis of enteric neurones in the neuropathology of intractable slow transit constipation. Gut. 55:41–46. 2006. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

29 

Gulbransen BD, Bains JS and Sharkey KA: Enteric glia are targets of the sympathetic innervation of the myenteric plexus in the guinea pig distal colon. J Neurosci. 30:6801–6809. 2010. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

30 

Gomes P, Chevalier J, Boesmans W, Roosen L, van den Abbeel V, Neunlist M, Tack J and Berghe P Vanden: ATP-dependent paracrine communication between enteric neurons and glia in a primary cell culture derived from embryonic mice. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 21:870–e62. 2009. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

31 

Gulbransen BD and Sharkey KA: Purinergic neuron-to-glia signaling in the enteric nervous system. Gastroenterol. 136:1349–1358. 2009. View Article : Google Scholar

32 

Boesmans W, Cirillo C, Van den Abbeel V, Van den Haute C, Depoortere I, Tack J and Berghe P Vanden: Neurotransmitters involved in fast excitatory neurotransmission directly activate enteric glial cells. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 25:e151–e160. 2013. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

33 

Cirillo C, Sarnelli G, Esposito G, Turco F, Steardo L and Cuomo R: S100B protein in the gut: The evidence for enteroglial-sustained intestinal inflammation. World J Gastroenterol. 17:1261–1266. 2011. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

34 

Turco F, Sarnelli G, Cirillo C, Palumbo I, De Giorgi F, D'Alessandro A, Cammarota M, Giuliano M and Cuomo R: Enteroglial-derived S100B protein integrates bacteria-induced Toll-like receptor signalling in human enteric glial cells. Gut. 63:105–115. 2014. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

35 

Cirillo C, Sarnelli G, Turco F, Mango A, Grosso M, Aprea G, Masone S and Cuomo R: Proinflammatory stimuli activates human-derived enteroglial cells and induces autocrine nitric oxide production. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 23:e372–e382. 2011. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

36 

Esposito G, Cirillo C, Sarnelli G, De Filippis D, D'Armiento FP, Rocco A, Nardone G, Petruzzelli R, Grosso M, Izzo P, et al: Enteric glial-derived S100B protein stimulates nitric oxide production in celiac disease. Gastroenterol. 133:918–925. 2007. View Article : Google Scholar

37 

Thacker M, Rivera LR, Cho HJ and Furness JB: The relationship between glial distortion and neuronal changes following intestinal ischemia and reperfusion. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 23:e500–e509. 2011. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

38 

Clairembault T, Kamphuis W, Leclair-Visonneau L, Rolli-Derkinderen M, Coron E, Neunlist M, Hol EM and Derkinderen P: Enteric GFAP expression and phosphorylation in Parkinson's disease. J Neurochem. 130:805–815. 2014. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

Related Articles

  • Abstract
  • View
  • Download
  • Twitter
Copy and paste a formatted citation
Spandidos Publications style
Wang N, Song S and Chen J: Synchronized dual pulse gastric electrical stimulation improves gastric emptying and activates enteric glial cells via upregulation of GFAP and S100B with different courses of subdiaphragmatic vagotomy in rats. Mol Med Rep 15: 3826-3832, 2017.
APA
Wang, N., Song, S., & Chen, J. (2017). Synchronized dual pulse gastric electrical stimulation improves gastric emptying and activates enteric glial cells via upregulation of GFAP and S100B with different courses of subdiaphragmatic vagotomy in rats. Molecular Medicine Reports, 15, 3826-3832. https://doi.org/10.3892/mmr.2017.6471
MLA
Wang, N., Song, S., Chen, J."Synchronized dual pulse gastric electrical stimulation improves gastric emptying and activates enteric glial cells via upregulation of GFAP and S100B with different courses of subdiaphragmatic vagotomy in rats". Molecular Medicine Reports 15.6 (2017): 3826-3832.
Chicago
Wang, N., Song, S., Chen, J."Synchronized dual pulse gastric electrical stimulation improves gastric emptying and activates enteric glial cells via upregulation of GFAP and S100B with different courses of subdiaphragmatic vagotomy in rats". Molecular Medicine Reports 15, no. 6 (2017): 3826-3832. https://doi.org/10.3892/mmr.2017.6471
Copy and paste a formatted citation
x
Spandidos Publications style
Wang N, Song S and Chen J: Synchronized dual pulse gastric electrical stimulation improves gastric emptying and activates enteric glial cells via upregulation of GFAP and S100B with different courses of subdiaphragmatic vagotomy in rats. Mol Med Rep 15: 3826-3832, 2017.
APA
Wang, N., Song, S., & Chen, J. (2017). Synchronized dual pulse gastric electrical stimulation improves gastric emptying and activates enteric glial cells via upregulation of GFAP and S100B with different courses of subdiaphragmatic vagotomy in rats. Molecular Medicine Reports, 15, 3826-3832. https://doi.org/10.3892/mmr.2017.6471
MLA
Wang, N., Song, S., Chen, J."Synchronized dual pulse gastric electrical stimulation improves gastric emptying and activates enteric glial cells via upregulation of GFAP and S100B with different courses of subdiaphragmatic vagotomy in rats". Molecular Medicine Reports 15.6 (2017): 3826-3832.
Chicago
Wang, N., Song, S., Chen, J."Synchronized dual pulse gastric electrical stimulation improves gastric emptying and activates enteric glial cells via upregulation of GFAP and S100B with different courses of subdiaphragmatic vagotomy in rats". Molecular Medicine Reports 15, no. 6 (2017): 3826-3832. https://doi.org/10.3892/mmr.2017.6471
Follow us
  • Twitter
  • LinkedIn
  • Facebook
About
  • Spandidos Publications
  • Careers
  • Cookie Policy
  • Privacy Policy
How can we help?
  • Help
  • Live Chat
  • Contact
  • Email to our Support Team