Combination of extracellular vesicles and organoids as a prospective model for cancer research (Review)

Malignant tumors remain a major global health challenge. Despite substantial improvements in survival rates for patients with cancer, a translational bottleneck persists, which hinders the clinical application of abundant experimental and preclinical findings. This issue reflects the inherent complexity and heterogeneity of tumors and highlights the urgent need for more clinically predictive tumor models. Over the past decade, growing evidence has highlighted the pivotal roles of extracellular vesicles (EVs) and organoids in cancer research. EVs function as stable carriers of intercellular communication, transporting key signaling molecules that regulate tumor growth, migration and angiogenesis. Organoids are three‑dimensional (3D) cell culture models grown in an extracellular matrix that can be co‑cultured with different cell types to mimic complex cellular interactions within a 3D environment. Increasingly, organoid and other 3D culture models are being used to study the physiological and pathological functions of EVs. In the present review, the classification, characteristics and functions of EVs in oncology are systematically outlined and the application of organoid models in cancer therapeutics are highlighted. Furthermore, the integration of organoids with EVs‑based approaches is explored as an emerging research direction in oncology. Finally, the challenges and future opportunities for combined organoid‑EVs models are discussed. The review aims to provide insights into organoids and EVs that may help to drive innovation in the development of cancer treatment strategies.