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Review Open Access

Combination of extracellular vesicles and organoids as a prospective model for cancer research (Review)

  • Authors:
    • Jia Cao
    • Yanan Xu
    • Yuhan Gao
    • Xing Li
    • Libin Wang
  • View Affiliations / Copyright

    Affiliations: Department of Institute of Medical Science, General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, Ningxia 750004, P.R. China, College of Life Sciences, Shanxi Normal University, Xi'an, Shanxi 710119, P.R. China, Department of Neurosurgery, Shenzhen Nanshan People's Hospital, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518052, P.R. China
    Copyright: © Cao et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of Creative Commons Attribution License.
  • Article Number: 123
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    Published online on: January 30, 2026
       https://doi.org/10.3892/ol.2026.15476
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Abstract

Malignant tumors remain a major global health challenge. Despite substantial improvements in survival rates for patients with cancer, a translational bottleneck persists, which hinders the clinical application of abundant experimental and preclinical findings. This issue reflects the inherent complexity and heterogeneity of tumors and highlights the urgent need for more clinically predictive tumor models. Over the past decade, growing evidence has highlighted the pivotal roles of extracellular vesicles (EVs) and organoids in cancer research. EVs function as stable carriers of intercellular communication, transporting key signaling molecules that regulate tumor growth, migration and angiogenesis. Organoids are three‑dimensional (3D) cell culture models grown in an extracellular matrix that can be co‑cultured with different cell types to mimic complex cellular interactions within a 3D environment. Increasingly, organoid and other 3D culture models are being used to study the physiological and pathological functions of EVs. In the present review, the classification, characteristics and functions of EVs in oncology are systematically outlined and the application of organoid models in cancer therapeutics are highlighted. Furthermore, the integration of organoids with EVs‑based approaches is explored as an emerging research direction in oncology. Finally, the challenges and future opportunities for combined organoid‑EVs models are discussed. The review aims to provide insights into organoids and EVs that may help to drive innovation in the development of cancer treatment strategies.

View Figures

Figure 1

Schematic overview of the advantages
and therapeutic potential of EVs. Certain nucleic acids and
proteins are transported by EVs, which can be used as biomarkers
for disease diagnosis. The targeting specificity of EVs toward
particular cell types can be enhanced through genetic engineering
or click-chemistry approaches. Also, EVs present multiple antigens
that can induce immune tolerance, positioning them as a novel
therapeutic strategy. EVs, extracellular vesicles; MHC, major
histocompatibility complex; MVB, multivesicular body; PD-1,
programmed cell death protein 1; PD-L1, programmed cell
death-ligand 1; siRNA, small interfering RNA; TCR, T cell
receptor.

Figure 2

Synthesis and applications of OEVs.
Tumor tissue samples are processed to obtain tissue-derived EVs and
to generate organoids via 3D culture. The EVs transport bioactive
molecules, including nucleic acids, lipids and proteins, to target
cells. The combination of organoids and EVs yields OEVs, which have
applications in diverse areas, including drug screening,
biobanking, personalized medicine, genomic profiling and animal
research. 3D, 3 dimensional; EVs, extracellular vesicles; OEVs,
organoid-derived EVs.
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Copy and paste a formatted citation
Spandidos Publications style
Cao J, Xu Y, Gao Y, Li X and Wang L: <p>Combination of extracellular vesicles and organoids as a prospective model for cancer research (Review)</p>. Oncol Lett 31: 123, 2026.
APA
Cao, J., Xu, Y., Gao, Y., Li, X., & Wang, L. (2026). <p>Combination of extracellular vesicles and organoids as a prospective model for cancer research (Review)</p>. Oncology Letters, 31, 123. https://doi.org/10.3892/ol.2026.15476
MLA
Cao, J., Xu, Y., Gao, Y., Li, X., Wang, L."<p>Combination of extracellular vesicles and organoids as a prospective model for cancer research (Review)</p>". Oncology Letters 31.4 (2026): 123.
Chicago
Cao, J., Xu, Y., Gao, Y., Li, X., Wang, L."<p>Combination of extracellular vesicles and organoids as a prospective model for cancer research (Review)</p>". Oncology Letters 31, no. 4 (2026): 123. https://doi.org/10.3892/ol.2026.15476
Copy and paste a formatted citation
x
Spandidos Publications style
Cao J, Xu Y, Gao Y, Li X and Wang L: <p>Combination of extracellular vesicles and organoids as a prospective model for cancer research (Review)</p>. Oncol Lett 31: 123, 2026.
APA
Cao, J., Xu, Y., Gao, Y., Li, X., & Wang, L. (2026). <p>Combination of extracellular vesicles and organoids as a prospective model for cancer research (Review)</p>. Oncology Letters, 31, 123. https://doi.org/10.3892/ol.2026.15476
MLA
Cao, J., Xu, Y., Gao, Y., Li, X., Wang, L."<p>Combination of extracellular vesicles and organoids as a prospective model for cancer research (Review)</p>". Oncology Letters 31.4 (2026): 123.
Chicago
Cao, J., Xu, Y., Gao, Y., Li, X., Wang, L."<p>Combination of extracellular vesicles and organoids as a prospective model for cancer research (Review)</p>". Oncology Letters 31, no. 4 (2026): 123. https://doi.org/10.3892/ol.2026.15476
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