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Article Open Access

Loperamide reverses 5‑FU resistance in colorectal cancer by activating autophagy

  • Authors:
    • Juan Yu
    • Xiaotong An
    • Xinyang Qu
    • Jing Ke
    • Huiling Rao
    • Yang Liu
    • Zhixin Liu
    • Danwen Liu
    • Jie Jia
    • Shan Li
  • View Affiliations / Copyright

    Affiliations: School of Basic Medical Sciences, Taihe Hospital, Hubei University of Medicine, Shiyan, Hubei 442000, P.R. China, Hubei Key Laboratory of Embryonic Stem Cell Research, Hubei University of Medicine, Shiyan, Hubei 442000, P.R. China, Shiyan Key Laboratory of Virology, Hubei University of Medicine, Shiyan, Hubei 442000, P.R. China
    Copyright: © Yu et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of Creative Commons Attribution License.
  • Article Number: 133
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    Published online on: August 4, 2025
       https://doi.org/10.3892/or.2025.8966
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Abstract

5‑Fluorouracil (5‑FU), a cornerstone chemotherapeutic agent used for colorectal cancer therapy, has long been established as a first‑line treatment. However, clinical evidence has suggested that a substantial proportion of patients develop resistance to 5‑FU, notably compromising its therapeutic efficacy. The present study aimed to investigate whether loperamide (LOP) can enhance the sensitivity of colorectal cancer cells to 5‑FU and to elucidate the potential underlying molecular mechanism. First, the IC50 values of LOP were determined in the 5‑FU‑sensitive HCT8 and 5‑FU‑resistant HCT8R colorectal cancer cell lines, using the Cell Counting Kit‑8 assay to evaluate LOP‑induced alterations in 5‑FU sensitivity. The effects of LOP on cell proliferation were subsequently analyzed using 5‑ethynyl‑2'‑deoxyuridine and colony formation assays. Cell migration was assessed through wound healing and Transwell migration assays, and apoptosis was evaluated using flow cytometric analysis with PI/Annexin V staining. Western blot analysis was performed to measure the expression levels of the autophagy‑associated proteins microtubule‑associated protein 1 light chain 3 (LC3) and Beclin, and autophagosome formation following LOP treatment was visualized. The role of autophagy in LOP‑mediated reversal of drug resistance was further examined using autophagy inhibitors. Finally, xenograft experiments in nude mice were performed to investigate the in vivo effects of LOP on the 5‑FU sensitivity of HCT8R cells. Compared with in the parental cell line, HCT8R cells exhibited enhanced migratory capabilities and resistance to 5‑FU. Notably, LOP was revealed to potentiate the sensitivity of HCT8R cells to 5‑FU, as evidenced by reduced rates of cell proliferation, suppressed migratory ability, increased levels of apoptosis, and decreased tumor weight and volume in subcutaneous xenografts in mice. LOP was also shown to induce upregulation of autophagy marker proteins, leading to the accumulation of autophagosomes within the cells. Blocking autophagy with 3‑methyladenine led to a reversal of the inhibitory effect of LOP on HCT8R cell migration. LOP was also shown to enhance the sensitivity of HCT8R cells to 5‑FU by activating cellular autophagy, thereby suppressing resistant cell proliferation and migration, promoting apoptosis and reversing drug resistance. Taken together, these findings provide novel insights into the mechanisms underlying 5‑FU resistance, thereby highlighting potential therapeutic strategies for colorectal cancer.
View Figures

Figure 1

LOP enhances the sensitivity of
colorectal cancer cells to 5-FU. (A) Transwell assay was performed,
assessing the migratory capability of HCT8 and HCT8R cells. (B)
CCK-8 assay was performed, evaluating the inhibitory effect of LOP
on HCT8 cell proliferation. CCK-8 assay was performed to (C)
evaluate the inhibitory effect of LOP on HCT8R cell proliferation,
(D) examine the effects of LOP combined with various concentrations
of 5-FU on HCT8R cell proliferation, and (E) evaluate the effects
of 5-FU combined with different concentrations of LOP on HCT8R cell
proliferation. **P<0.01, ***P<0.001, ****P<0.0001 (n=3).
5-FU, 5-fluorouracil; CCK-8, Cell Counting Kit-8; DMSO, dimethyl
sulfoxide; LOP, loperamide; ns, not significant.

Figure 2

LOP inhibits the proliferation of
5-FU-treated HCT8R cells in vitro and in vivo. (A)
EdU assay was performed, demonstrating the effect of LOP combined
with 5-FU on the proliferation of HCT8R cells. (B) Colony formation
assay was performed, showing the impact of LOP combined with 5-FU
on the number of colonies formed by HCT8R cells. (C) Subcutaneous
tumor transplantation experiments were performed to assess the
in vivo effect of LOP on the 5-FU sensitivity of HCT8R
cells. (D) Tumor weight differences and (E) Tumor volume
differences among the groups are shown. *P<0.05, ***P<0.001,
****P<0.0001 (n=3). 5-FU, 5-fluorouracil; DMSO, dimethyl
sulfoxide; EdU, 5-ethynyl-2′-deoxyuridine; LOP, loperamide; ns, not
significant.

Figure 3

LOP enhances the inhibition of HCT8R
cell invasion and migration, and induces apoptosis mediated by
5-FU. (A) Wound healing assay was performed, assessing the effects
of LOP combined with 5-FU on the migration of HCT8R cells. (B)
Transwell assay was performed to evaluate the impact of LOP
combined with 5-FU on the migration of HCT8R cells. (C) Flow
cytometric analysis was performed to evaluate the effects of LOP on
5-FU-induced apoptosis in HCT8R cells. *P<0.05, **P<0.01,
***P<0.001, ****P<0.0001 (n=3). 5-FU, 5-fluorouracil; DMSO,
dimethyl sulfoxide; LOP, loperamide; ns, not significant.

Figure 4

LOP enhances the inhibitory effects
of 5-FU on HCT8R cells through autophagy activation. (A) Western
blot analysis of changes in LC3 and Beclin protein expression in
HCT8R cells treated with LOP and 5-FU. (B) Confocal microscopy
images, showing the generation of autophagic vesicles in HCT8R
cells transfected with the EGFP-LC3 plasmid, and treated with LOP
and 5-FU. (C) Western blot analysis of Beclin protein expression in
HCT8R cells treated with or without 3-MA. (D) Statistical analysis
of changes in Beclin expression in HCT8R cells treated with or
without 3-MA. (E) Transwell assays were performed, assessing the
migratory capability of HCT8R cells treated with LOP, 5-FU, with or
without 3-MA. *P<0.05, **P<0.01 (n=3). 3-MA, 3-methyladenine;
5-FU, 5-fluorouracil; DMSO, dimethyl sulfoxide; LC3,
microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3; LOP, loperamide;
ns, not significant.
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Copy and paste a formatted citation
Spandidos Publications style
Yu J, An X, Qu X, Ke J, Rao H, Liu Y, Liu Z, Liu D, Jia J, Li S, Li S, et al: Loperamide reverses 5‑FU resistance in colorectal cancer by activating autophagy. Oncol Rep 54: 133, 2025.
APA
Yu, J., An, X., Qu, X., Ke, J., Rao, H., Liu, Y. ... Li, S. (2025). Loperamide reverses 5‑FU resistance in colorectal cancer by activating autophagy. Oncology Reports, 54, 133. https://doi.org/10.3892/or.2025.8966
MLA
Yu, J., An, X., Qu, X., Ke, J., Rao, H., Liu, Y., Liu, Z., Liu, D., Jia, J., Li, S."Loperamide reverses 5‑FU resistance in colorectal cancer by activating autophagy". Oncology Reports 54.4 (2025): 133.
Chicago
Yu, J., An, X., Qu, X., Ke, J., Rao, H., Liu, Y., Liu, Z., Liu, D., Jia, J., Li, S."Loperamide reverses 5‑FU resistance in colorectal cancer by activating autophagy". Oncology Reports 54, no. 4 (2025): 133. https://doi.org/10.3892/or.2025.8966
Copy and paste a formatted citation
x
Spandidos Publications style
Yu J, An X, Qu X, Ke J, Rao H, Liu Y, Liu Z, Liu D, Jia J, Li S, Li S, et al: Loperamide reverses 5‑FU resistance in colorectal cancer by activating autophagy. Oncol Rep 54: 133, 2025.
APA
Yu, J., An, X., Qu, X., Ke, J., Rao, H., Liu, Y. ... Li, S. (2025). Loperamide reverses 5‑FU resistance in colorectal cancer by activating autophagy. Oncology Reports, 54, 133. https://doi.org/10.3892/or.2025.8966
MLA
Yu, J., An, X., Qu, X., Ke, J., Rao, H., Liu, Y., Liu, Z., Liu, D., Jia, J., Li, S."Loperamide reverses 5‑FU resistance in colorectal cancer by activating autophagy". Oncology Reports 54.4 (2025): 133.
Chicago
Yu, J., An, X., Qu, X., Ke, J., Rao, H., Liu, Y., Liu, Z., Liu, D., Jia, J., Li, S."Loperamide reverses 5‑FU resistance in colorectal cancer by activating autophagy". Oncology Reports 54, no. 4 (2025): 133. https://doi.org/10.3892/or.2025.8966
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