COVID‑19: An update of current knowledge (Review)

Pandey,Vaishnavi; Singh,Ajai; Siddiqui,Salma; Raikwar,Archana; Gond,Amit Kumar; Ali,Sabir; Yadav,Manish; Datta,Aashima; Singh,Anamika

doi:10.3892/wasj.2021.86

COVID‑19: An update of current knowledge (Review)

Authors:
- Vaishnavi Pandey
- Ajai Singh
- Salma Siddiqui
- Archana Raikwar
- Amit Kumar Gond
- Sabir Ali
- Manish Yadav
- Aashima Datta
- Anamika Singh
View Affiliations

Affiliations: Department of Paediatric Orthopaedics, King George's Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 226018, India, Department of Biochemistry, King George's Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 226018, India, Department of Paediatrics, King George's Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 226018, India, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, King George's Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 226018, India
Published online on: January 18, 2021 https://doi.org/10.3892/wasj.2021.86
Article Number: 15
Copyright: © Pandey et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of Creative Commons Attribution License.

Metrics: Total Views: 0 (Spandidos Publications: | PMC Statistics: )

Metrics: Total PDF Downloads: 0 (Spandidos Publications: | PMC Statistics: )

Cited By (CrossRef): 0 citations Loading Articles...

Abstract

There is a current public health issue threatening human health worldwide with the rapid spread of the novel coronavirus (2019‑nCoV) or severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus‑2 (SARS‑CoV‑2). The infection was reported to first originate in bats and subsequently spread to humans via yet unknown source animals in Wuhan, Hubei, China in December, 2019. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‑19) caused by extreme acute respiratory coronavirus‑2 syndrome (SARS‑CoV‑2) is an unprecedented healthy global emergency. The outbreak of SARS‑CoV‑2 has once again revealed the vulnerabilities of global healthcare systems, the capacity of these systems to respond to an infectious threat, as well as the rate of infection and transmission across international borders. The present review article aimed to provide an update of the current knowledge regarding COVID‑19 epidemiology, pathogenesis and transmission, as well as public health measures. The present review also emphasises the key learning points related to COVID‑19 prevention and identifies the need to invest in healthcare systems, community‑led defence systems, as well as the need for resilience and global health security.

View Figures

View References

1	Radford T: More avoidable pandemics await a heedless world. PreventionWeb, 2020. https://www.preventionweb.net/news/view/74677. Accessed November 11, 2020.
2	Docea AO, Tsatsakis A, Albulescu D, Cristea O, Zlatian O, Vinceti M, Moschos SA, Tsoukalas D, Goumenou M, Drakoulis N, et al: A new threat from an old enemy: Re-emergence of coronavirus (Review). Int J Mol Med. 45:1631–1643. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
3	Nitulescu GM, Paunescu H, Moschos SA, Petrakis D, Nitulescu G, Ion GND, Spandidos DA, Nikolouzakis TK, Drakoulis N and Tsatsakis A: Comprehensive analysis of drugs to treat SARS-CoV-2 infection: Mechanistic insights into current COVID-19 therapies (Review). Int J Mol Med. 46:467–488. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
4	Stancioiu F, Papadakis GZ, Kteniadakis S, Izotov BN, Coleman MD, Spandidos DA and Tsatsakis A: A dissection of SARS-CoV2 with clinical implications (Review). Int J Mol Med. 46:489–508. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
5	Richman DD, Whitley RJ and Hayden FG: Clinical Virology. 4th edition. ASM Press, Washington, 2016.
6	Chan-Yeung M and Xu RH: SARS: Epidemiology. Respirology. 8 (Suppl 1):S9–S14. 2003.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
7	Omrani AS, Al-Tawfiq JA and Memish ZA: Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV): Animal to human interaction. Pathog Glob Health. 109:354–362. 2015.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
8	Lu R, Zhao X, Li J, Niu P, Yang B, Wu H, Wang W, Song H, Huang B, Zhu N, et al: Genomic characterisation and epidemiology of 2019 novel coronavirus: Implications for virus origins and receptor binding. Lancet. 395:565–574. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
9	Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, Ren L, Zhao J, Hu Y, Zhang L, Fan G, Xu J, Gu X, et al: Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet. 395:497–506. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
10	Rothe C, Schunk M, Sothmann P, Bretzel G, Froeschl G, Wallrauch C, Zimmer T, Thiel V, Janke C, Guggemos W, et al: transmission of 2019-nCoV infection from an asymptomatic contact in Germany. N Engl J Med. 382:970–971. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
11	Li Q, Guan X, Wu P, Wang X, Zhou L, Tong Y, Ren R, Leung KSM, Lau EHY, Wong JY, et al: Early transmission dynamics in Wuhan, China, of novel coronavirus-infected pneumonia. N Engl J Med. 382:1199–1207. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
12	Riou J and Althaus CL: Pattern of early human-to-human transmission of Wuhan 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV), December 2019 to January 2020. Euro Surveill. 25(2000058)2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar : Erratum in: Euro Surveill 25: 20200220c, 2020.
13	Liu Y, Gayle AA, Wilder-Smith A and Rocklöv J: The reproductive number of COVID-19 is higher compared to SARS coronavirus. J Travel Med. 27(taaa021)2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
14	Chan JF, Yuan S, Kok KH, To KK, Chu H, Yang J, Xing F, Liu J, Yip CC, Poon RW, et al: A familial cluster of pneumonia associated with the 2019 novel coronavirus indicating person-to-person transmission: A study of a family cluster. Lancet. 395:514–523. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
15	Guo YR, Cao QD, Hong ZS, Tan YY, Chen SD, Jin HJ, Tan KS, Wang DY and Yan Y: The origin, transmission and clinical therapies on coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak - an update on the status. Mil Med Res. 7(11)2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
16	Li W, Moore MJ, Vasilieva N, Sui J, Wong SK, Berne MA, Somasundaran M, Sullivan JL, Luzuriaga K, Greenough TC, et al: Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 is a functional receptor for the SARS coronavirus. Nature. 426:450–454. 2003.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
17	Li MY, Li L, Zhang Y and Wang XS: Expression of the SARS-CoV-2 cell receptor gene ACE2 in a wide variety of human tissues. Infect Dis Poverty. 9(45)2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
18	Zhu N, Zhang D, Wang W, Li X, Yang B, Song J, Zhao X, Huang B, Shi W, Lu R, et al: China Novel Coronavirus Investigating and Research Team: A novel coronavirus from patients with pneumonia in China, 2019. N Engl J Med. 382:727–733. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
19	Bowen LE: Does that face mask really protect you? Appl Biosaf. 15:67–71. 2010.
20	van Doremalen N, Bushmaker T, Morris DH, Holbrook MG, Gamble A, Williamson BN, Tamin A, Harcourt JL, Thornburg NJ, Gerber SI, et al: Aerosol and surface stability of SARS-CoV-2 as compared with SARS-CoV-1. N Engl J Med. 382:1564–1567. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
21	Smith JD, MacDougall CC, Johnstone J, Copes RA, Schwartz B and Garber GE: Effectiveness of N95 respirators versus surgical masks in protecting health care workers from acute respiratory infection: A systematic review and meta-analysis. CMAJ. 188:567–574. 2016.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
22	National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE): COVID-19 rapid guideline: critical care in adults. NICE, London, 2020. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng159. Accessed March 20, 2020.
23	Belouzard S, Millet JK, Licitra BN and Whittaker GR: Mechanisms of coronavirus cell entry mediated by the viral spike protein. Viruses. 4:1011–1033. 2012.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
24	Simmons G, Zmora P, Gierer S, Heurich A and Pöhlmann S: Proteolytic activation of the SARS-coronavirus spike protein: Cutting enzymes at the cutting edge of antiviral research. Antiviral Res. 100:605–614. 2013.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
25	Yang P and Wang X: COVID-19: A new challenge for human beings. Cell Mol Immunol. 17:555–557. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
26	Robinson MS: Coats and vesicle budding. Trends Cell Biol. 7:99–102. 1997.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
27	Glick BS and Malhotra V: The curious status of the Golgi apparatus. Cell. 95:883–889. 1998.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
28	Gaidarov I, Santini F, Warren RA and Keen JH: Spatial control of coated-pit dynamics in living cells. Nat Cell Biol. 1:1–7. 1999.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
29	Fung TS and Liu DX: Human Coronavirus: Host-Pathogen Interaction. Annu Rev Microbiol. 73:529–557. 2019.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
30	Holmes KV, Tresnan DB and Zelus BD: Virus-receptor interactions in the enteric tract. Virus-receptor interactions. Adv Exp Med Biol. 412:125–133. 1997.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
31	Brierley I and Dos Ramos FJ: Programmed ribosomal frameshifting in HIV-1 and the SARS-CoV. Virus Res. 119:29–42. 2006.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
32	Leibowitz JL: Coronaviruses: Molecular and Cellular Biology. Emerg Infect Dis. 14:693–694. 2008.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
33	Tekes G, Hofmann-Lehmann R, Stallkamp I, Thiel V and Thiel HJ: Genome organization and reverse genetic analysis of a type I feline coronavirus. J Virol. 82:1851–1859. 2008.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
34	Alexopoulou L, Holt AC, Medzhitov R and Flavell RA: Recognition of double-stranded RNA and activation of NF-kappaB by Toll-like receptor 3. Nature. 413:732–738. 2001.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
35	Takeuchi O and Akira S: Innate immunity to virus infection. Immunol Rev. 227:75–86. 2009.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
36	Rothan HA and Byrareddy SN: The epidemiology and pathogenesis of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak. J Autoimmun. 109(102433)2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar
37	World Health Organization (WHO): Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) Situation Report - 72. https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/situation-reports/20200401-sitrep-72-covid-19.pdf?sfvrsn=3dd8971b_2. Accessed April 1, 2020.