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Introduction

Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is a major cause of end-stage renal disease (ESRD). One of the early markers of DN and vascular disease in patients with diabetes is the presence of microalbuminuria (MAU). Without specific intervention, 20–40% of type 2 diabetic patients with MAU progress to overt nephropathy (1). Therefore, screening for MAU and timely therapeutic intervention has become the standard in care worldwide.

Plasma triglyceride (TG) levels are increased in patients with DN. The abnormal synthesis and clearance of TG and the lipoprotein particles associated with TG may be involved in the development of DN (2). There is evidence suggesting that TG-rich lipoprotein (TRL) particles predominantly containing apolipoproteins (apos) E, C and B may be major promoters of DN (2). In patients with DN, plasma TG levels may increase, partly due to the reduced activity of hepatic lipase (HL) and lipoprotein lipase (LPL), which hydrolyze TG (3).

ApoCIII is a protein composed of 79 amino acid residues that is predominantly synthesized in the liver, although synthesis also occurs in the intestine. ApoCIII is an exchangeable protein moiety between chylomicron remnants, very low-density lipoproteins (VLDLs) and high-density lipoproteins (HDLs) (4,5). In the blood circulation, ApoCIII is associated mainly with TRLs, HDLs and, to a lesser extent, low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) (6–8). Total plasma apoCIII levels have been found to be key determining factors of serum TG levels. Studies involving gene variation and circulating protein levels have implicated apoCIII as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease (9–12). ApoCIII is an inhibitor of the activity of LPL (13), which metabolizes TG in VLDL and facilitates its clearance from plasma. In addition, ApoCIII reduces the plasma clearance of VLDL and LDL by inhibiting their interaction with hepatic lipoprotein receptors (14,15).

There is considerable information regarding the effects of apoCIII on lipoprotein metabolism (10,16,17). Statins have been suggested to lower plasma apoCIII levels. In 27 patients with primary hypertriglyceridemia, administration of 20–40 mg atorvastatin for four weeks reduced plasma apoCIII levels by 18–30% (18). However, little information is available regarding the association between microalbuminuria (MAU) and circulating apoCIII levels in DN. To enhance the understanding of this issue, the present study aimed to assess serum apoCIII levels and the association between apoCIII levels and MAU, and to evaluate the effectiveness of statins in lowering apoCIII levels and therefore decreasing MAU in type 2 diabetes.

Materials and methods

Patients

Subjects with type 2 diabetes (n=120) aged 48–66 years were recruited from Hebei General Hospital (Shijiazhuang, China). A group of 60 healthy subjects aged 47–65 years (30 male and 30 female) was selected as control subjects. The study was approved by the Institutional Ethic Committee of Hebei General Hospital and written informed consent was obtained from all subjects. Written informed consent was obtained from all subjects. The baseline characteristics of the type 2 diabetes and type 2 DN groups are shown in Table I. The patients with DN were administered atorvastatin (20 mg) daily. Patients were interviewed every four weeks during treatment to assess drug adherence up to a total of 16 weeks.

Table I Baseline characteristics of the two groups.

Table I

Baseline characteristics of the two groups.

Variable	Type 2 diabetes	Type 2 DN	P-value
Number (male/female)	60 (28/32)	60 (33/27)	0.361
Age, yearsa	55.3±9.8	56.0±9.5	0.692
Course of disease, yearsa	5.8±3.1	7.8±3.0	0.001
Coronary heart disease, %	8.3	13.3	0.378
Stroke, %	5.0	16.7	0.040
Retinopathy, %	28.3	55.0	0.003

a Values are presented as the mean ± standard deviation.

{ label (or @symbol) needed for fn[@id='tfn2-etm-08-03-0951'] } DN, diabetic nephropathy.

Samples

A blood sample was collected following an overnight fast of ≥8 h and prior to insulin administration from the 120 patients with type 2 diabetes and the 60 healthy subjects. Fasting blood samples were taken for the measurement of serum glucose, glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c) and the lipid profile. Timed urine samples (24 h) were collected from all patients for the determination of MAU. Fasting blood glucose (FBG) was determined on a Beckman CX9 automatic analyzer (Beckman Coulter, Miami, FL, USA) using a glucose oxidase method. HbA1c levels were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography, using the BioRad Variant Hemoglobin Analyzer (Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA, USA).

For the lipoprotein studies, blood was placed on ice in polypropylene tubes containing a solution of lipoprotein preservatives comprising 2.8 mmol/l EDTA, 62 μmol/l chloramphenicol, 50 μg/ml gentamycin sulfate, 10 mmol/l ɛ-aminocaproic acid and 100 mmol/l 5,5′-dithiobis-(2-nitrobenzoic acid) (final concentrations). Samples were immediately centrifuged at 1,008 × g for 25 min to sediment blood cells and were subsequently stored at −80°C until analysis. Total cholesterol (TC) and TG levels were determined using the enzymatic colorimetric method on the Beckman CX9 automatic analyzer and HDL-cholesterol (HDL-C) was measured using a direct enzymatic HDL-C method based on polyethylene glycol-modified enzymes on the Beckman CX9 automatic analyzer. VLDL-cholesterol (VLDL-C) and LDL-cholesterol (LDL-C) levels were estimated using the Friedewald formula (19). ApoCIII concentration in the serum was determined using a competitive ELISA method (Bioworld Technology, Shanghai, China) (18). The standard curve was fitted to a four-parameter sigmoidal curve. The inter- and intra-assay variability for the assay was <7%.

Body mass index (BMI) and blood pressure (BP) were measured for all the subjects. Obesity was defined as BMI ≥25 kg/m2. Hypertension was defined as BP >140/90 mmHg or the administration of anti-hypertensive drug treatment. Fasting blood samples were measured for biochemistry and metabolic profile analysis. Dyslipidemia was defined as TG ≥1.7 mmol/l and/or HDL-C <1.1 mmol/l in males and <1.3 mmol/l in females and/or LDL-C > 2.6 mmol/l or treatment with lipid-lowering drugs. DN was defined as MAU ≥30 mg/24 h in two collections of timed urine samples (24 h) and serum creatinine (Cr) ≤132 μmol/l. Patients with urinary tract infection, hematuria shown by urine microscopy or obstructive uropathy shown by kidney ultrasound suggestive of non-diabetes-related causes were excluded. Type 2 diabetic patients without DN had serum Cr ≤132 μmol/l and MAU <30 mg/24 h in two collections of timed urine samples. Control subjects without diabetes had no known history of diabetes, exhibited normal glucose tolerance at the 75 g oral glucose tolerance test (1998 World Health Organization criteria) (20) and had normal blood biochemistry. The blood and urine samples of patients with type 2 DN were collected after 16 weeks of therapy.

Statistical analysis

Analyses were performed using SPSS 17.0 for Windows (SPSS, Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). Data are expressed as percentages or as the mean ± standard deviation. The mean differences of continuous variables between the type 2 diabetes and type 2 DN groups were analyzed using the Student’s t-test. The mean differences of categorical variables between these two groups were analyzed using the χ2 test. The mean differences among groups were analyzed using analysis of variance, and the Newman-Keuls post hoc test was used in the event of a significant F-ratio. Pearson correlation was performed between MAU and the other variables. Logistic regression analysis was used to assess the association between MAU and other clinically relevant variables, where the clinical variables were considered as independent and MAU as dependent. Estimated odds ratios (ORs) are expressed with their 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs). All significant tests were two-sided and were considered statistically significant at P<0.05.

Results

Comparisons of basic clinical data

Compared with the type 2 diabetes group, the type 2 DN group showed a longer course of disease (P<0.01). The stroke and retinopathy rates in the patients with type 2 DN were significantly higher than those in patients without DN (P<0.05). However the occurrence rate of coronary heart disease exhibited no statistical difference between the two groups (P>0.05) (Table I).

Comparisons of BP, BMI, HbA1c, FBG, lipid profile, apoCIII and MAU

Compared with the control group, systolic BP (SBP), diastolic BP (DBP), BMI and levels of HbA1c, FBG, TG, VLDL-C, apoCIII and MAU were markedly elevated in the type 2 diabetes and type 2 DN groups (P<0.01), while HDL-C levels were decreased significantly (P<0.01). All patients with type 2 DN showed significantly elevated TC and LDL-C levels (P<0.05) (Table II). Although the BMI and levels of HbA1c, FBG, TG, TC, LDL-C and VLDL-C were elevated in the type 2 DN group compared with those in the type 2 diabetes group, the differences were not significant (P>0.05). However, the levels of SBP, DBP, apoCIII and MAU in this group were more notably increased (P<0.01) (Table II).

Table II Comparisons of BP, BMI, HbA1c, FBG, lipid profile, apoCIII and MAU.

Table II

Comparisons of BP, BMI, HbA1c, FBG, lipid profile, apoCIII and MAU.

Variable	Control	Type 2 diabetes	Type 2 diabetic nephropathy
SBP, mmHg	121.55±10.61	131.53±10.72a	152.1±11.80a,b
DBP, mmHg	72.12±8.52	74.48±7.00	83.10±9.34a,b
BMI, kg/m2	20.12±2.07	24.13±2.02a	24.79±1.83a
HbA1c, %	4.91±1.08	7.37±1.11a	7.78±1.22a
FBG, mmol/l	4.41±0.38	8.23±2.29a	8.91±2.51a
TG, mmol/l	1.26±0.51	1.57±0.56a	1.75±0.44a
TC, mmol/l	4.35±0.91	4.73±1.15	5.12±1.26a
HDL-C, mmol/l	1.13±0.29	0.97±0.28a	0.88±0.23a
LDL-C, mmol/l	2.66±0.72	2.95±0.84	3.15±0.86a
VLDL-C, mmol/l	0.51±0.24	0.72±0.31a	0.83±0.37a
apoCIII, μg/ml	10.65±4.58	14.67±5.07a	19.48±4.86a,b
MAU, mg/24 h	6.61±1.15	12.11±5.19	229.76±41.06a,b

{ label (or @symbol) needed for fn[@id='tfn3-etm-08-03-0951'] } Values are presented as the mean ± standard deviation (n=60/group).

a P<0.01 vs. control;

b P<0.01 vs. type 2 diabetes.

{ label (or @symbol) needed for fn[@id='tfn6-etm-08-03-0951'] } SBP, systolic blood pressure; DBP, diastolic blood pressure; BMI, body mass index; HbA1c, glycosylated hemoglobin; FBG, fasting blood glucose; TG, triglyceride; TC, total cholesterol; HDL-C, high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol; LDL-C, low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol; VLDL-C, very low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol; apoCIII, apolipoprotein CIII; MAU, microalbuminuria.

Associations between MAU and age, gender, course of the disease, BP, BMI, HbA1c, FBG, lipid profile and apoCIII in type 2 diabetes and type 2DN patients

MAU was significantly positively correlated with the course of the disease, SBP, DBP, BMI, HbA1c, FBG, TG, TC, LDL-C, VLDL-C and apoCIII, whereas negatively correlated with HDL-C. MAU exhibited no association with age or gender (Table III).

Table III Associations between microalbuminuria and age, gender, course of disease, BP, BMI, HbA1c, FBG, lipid profile and apoCIII in type 2 diabetes and type 2 DN patients.

Table III

Associations between microalbuminuria and age, gender, course of disease, BP, BMI, HbA1c, FBG, lipid profile and apoCIII in type 2 diabetes and type 2 DN patients.

Variable	r	P-value
Age, years	0.023	0.400
Gender	0.031	0.359
Course of disease, years	0.267	0.002
SBP, mmHg	0.429	<0.001
DBP, mmHg	0.438	<0.001
BMI, kg/m2	0.204	0.013
HbA1c, %	0.179	0.025
FBG, mmol/l	0.164	0.037
TG, mmol/l	0.208	0.011
TC, mmol/l	0.156	0.044
HDL-C, mmol/l	−0.194	0.020
LDL-C, mmol/l	0.193	0.021
VLDL-C, mmol/l	0.168	0.036
apoCIII, μg/ml	0.501	<0.001

[i] SBP, systolic blood pressure; DBP, diastolic blood pressure; BMI, body mass index; HbA1c, glycosylated hemoglobin; FBG, fasting blood glucose; TG, triglyceride; TC, total cholesterol; HDL-C, high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol; LDL-C, low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol; VLDL-C, very low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol; apoCIII, apolipoprotein CIII.

Multiple regression analysis for MAU in type 2 diabetes and type 2DN patients

To further clarify the independent associations of age, gender, course of the disease, BP, BMI, HbA1c, FBG, lipid profile and apoCIII with MAU, logistic regression analysis was performed. This revealed that only apoCIII was independently associated with MAU (OR, 1.100; 95% CI, 1.037–1.153; P<0.001). The other variables were not independent predisposing factors for MAU in type 2 diabetes (Table IV).

Table IV Multiple regression analysis for microalbuminuria in type 2 diabetes and type 2 DN patients..

Table IV

Multiple regression analysis for microalbuminuria in type 2 diabetes and type 2 DN patients..

Variable	OR	95% CI	P-value
Age, years	1.015	0.985–1.045	0.323
Gender	0.990	0.544–1.803	0.974
Course of disease, years	1.045	0.948–1.153	0.374
SBP, mmHg	1.031	0.996–1.068	0.082
DBP, mmHg	0.984	0.938–1.032	0.498
BMI, kg/m2	1.086	0.919–1.283	0.355
HbA1c, %	1.048	0.798–1.375	0.738
FBG, mmol/l	0.991	0.866–1.135	0.900
TG, mmol/l	0.934	0.489–1.781	0.835
TC, mmol/l	1.106	0.870–1.406	0.412
HDL-C, mmol/l	1.645	0.617–4.386	0.320
LDL-C, mmol/l	1.117	0.133–1.704	0.607
VLDL-C, mmol/l	1.237	0.497–3.080	0.648
apoCIII, μg/ml	1.100	1.037–1.153	<0.001

[i] SBP, systolic blood pressure; DBP, diastolic blood pressure; BMI, body mass index; HbA1c, glycosylated hemoglobin; FBG, fasting blood glucose; TG, triglyceride; TC, total cholesterol; HDL-C, high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol; LDL-C, low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol; VLDL-C, very low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol; apoCIII, apolipoprotein CIII; OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval.

Atorvastatin improves the lipid profile and MAU levels in patients with type 2 DN

After 16 weeks of atorvastatin administration in patients with type 2 DN, levels of TG, TC, LDL-C, VLDL-C and apoCIII were significantly decreased compared with those prior to treatment, while HDL-C levels were found to have increased markedly (P<0.05). MAU levels were observed to have decreased significantly (P<0.01) (Table V).

Table V Mean differences of changes in the lipid profile and MAU after 16 weeks of atorvastatin administration in patients with type 2 DN.

Table V

Mean differences of changes in the lipid profile and MAU after 16 weeks of atorvastatin administration in patients with type 2 DN.

Variable	Before administration	After administration	t	P-value
TG, mmol/l	1.725±0.44	1.45±0.238	3.7306	0.0002
TC, mmol/l	5.12±1.26	4.34±1.03	3.7125	0.0002
HDL-C, mmol/l	0.88±0.23	1.08±0.20	5.0827	<0.0001
LDL-C, mmol/l	3.15±0.86	2.64±0.75	3.4620	0.0005
VLDL-C, mmol/l	0.83±0.37	0.62±0.31	3.3699	0.0008
apoCIII, μg/ml	19.48±4.86	12.75±4.01	8.2736	<0.0001
MAU, mg/24 h	229.76±41.06	110.48±27.86	18.6204	<0.0001

[i] Values are presented as the mean ± standard deviation (n=60). TG, triglyceride; TC, total cholesterol; HDL-C, high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol; LDL-C, low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol; VLDL-C, very low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol; apoCIII, apolipoprotein C-III; MAU, microalbuminuria.

Discussion

There is currently a global epidemic of type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM), which accounts for 40–50% of all new cases of ESRD. Among the clinical signs of nephropathy, the appearance of low but abnormal levels (>30 mg/day) of albumin in the urine, known as MAU, is first to occur. MAU is a leading cause of DM-related morbidity and mortality (21). In type 2 diabetes, lipotoxicity and glucotoxicity increase the risk of diabetic micro- and macrovascular complications (3,22).

In the majority of type 2 diabetic patients, insulin resistance is a key pathophysiological feature. Lipases are insulin-sensitive enzymes that hydrolyze TG in TRL particles. Diabetic dyslipidemia is typically characterized by high TG and low HDL-C levels. The high TG levels in turn can alter the composition of LDL-C and HDL-C, making these lipid particles more atherogenic (23). Nephritis can be exacerbated through increased TG levels and oxidized remnant lipoprotein particles, which induce mesangial cells to proliferate and secrete cytokines (24). Following the initiation of proteinuria, the loss of lipoprotein particles in the urine can enhance their synthesis in the liver. Furthermore, the lipoprotein particles can cause renal damage by binding to glomerular basement membranes and renal tubular cells. This can initiate a vicious cycle of proteinuria and dyslipidemia (22). Patients with renal disease, whether associated with diabetes or not, have increased TG and remnant lipoprotein levels and decreased LPL and HL activity (3). In addition to the effects of lipotoxicity on the kidney, increased von Willebrand factor and decreased heparin-releasable LPL levels lead to vascular endothelial damage. Reduced lipase binding to the damaged endothelium may further increase TG levels in DN (3).

The present study showed that BP, BMI and levels of HbA1c, FBG, TG, VLDL-C, apoCIII and MAU were markedly elevated in the type 2 diabetes and type 2 DN groups compared with those in the control group (P<0.01), while HDL-C levels were decreased significantly (P<0.01). These findings were consistent with those in other studies (3,23). All patients with type 2 DN showed significantly elevated BP, apoCIII, MAU, course of the disease and stroke and retinopathy rates compared with the patients with type 2 diabetes (P<0.01).

ApoCIII is an effective inhibitor of LPL activity and is present in TRLs and HDLs (13). Sections of apoCIII can be exchanged between these lipoproteins (24). Upon an elevation in TRL concentration, ApoCIII is transferred from HDLs to TRLs, which causes a decrease in HDL apoCIII concentration. Following the degradation of TG in TRLs by LPLs, apoCIII transfers back to the HDLs, such that clearance of the TRL particles may proceed uninhibited (25). In a study by Klein et al (26), an independent positive association between apoCIII levels and type 1 diabetes-related microvascular complications was found in the cohort of patients.

The present study revealed that MAU was significantly positively correlated with the course of the disease, SBP, DBP, BMI and HbA1c, FBG, TG, TC, LDL-C VLDL-C and apoCIII levels, whereas negatively correlated with HDL-C levels (P<0.05). MAU exhibited no association with age and gender (P>0.05). Logistic regression analysis revealed that only apoCIII was independently associated with MAU (OR, 1.100; 95% CI, 1.037–1.153; P<0.001). Other factors were not independent predisposing factors for MAU in type 2 diabetes.

Atorvastatin is a potent 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase inhibitor that has been shown to effectively reduce total plasma TC and TG levels. Statins have become the preferred agents as lipid-lowering drugs in diabetic patients (27). Statins have been reported to exert cardioprotective and antioxidant effects, regardless of their effect on LDL-C reduction (28). In a study of 305 patients with primary hypercholesterolemia, atorvastatin and pravastatin reduced levels of lipoprotein particles containing apoCIII and apoB by 30% (29). The present study indicated that, by the end of 16 weeks, atorvastatin decreased TG, TC, LDL-C, VLDL-C and apoCIII levels significantly (P<0.05), while increasing HDL-C markedly (P<0.05) in patients with type 2 DN. A significant decrease in MAU was also observed (P<0.01). Rutter et al (30) compared the renal effects of treatment with low- versus high-dose atorvastatin in patients with type 2 DM and optimally managed early renal disease. No statistical difference in renal function was identified between the high- and low-dose atorvastatin treatment groups over two years. The beneficial effect of a glomerular filtration rate of <1.6 ml/min/1.73 m2/year, as estimated using the Modification of Diet in Renal Disease equation, was observed. However, such an effect may have been due to blood pressure management and/or a renin-angiotensin system blocker use (30,31). With regard to the present findings, the decrease in MAU in patients with type 2 DN may have been due to comprehensive treatment. In conclusion, in type 2 diabetes, circulating apoCIII levels were independently correlated with MAU. Atorvastatin improved the lipid profile in patients and may contribute to decreasing MAU levels in type 2 DN.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Tianxiao Hu for the technical assistance.

References