Spandidos Publications Logo
  • About
    • About Spandidos
    • Aims and Scopes
    • Abstracting and Indexing
    • Editorial Policies
    • Reprints and Permissions
    • Job Opportunities
    • Terms and Conditions
    • Contact
  • Journals
    • All Journals
    • Oncology Letters
      • Oncology Letters
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • International Journal of Oncology
      • International Journal of Oncology
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Molecular and Clinical Oncology
      • Molecular and Clinical Oncology
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine
      • Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • International Journal of Molecular Medicine
      • International Journal of Molecular Medicine
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Biomedical Reports
      • Biomedical Reports
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Oncology Reports
      • Oncology Reports
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Molecular Medicine Reports
      • Molecular Medicine Reports
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • World Academy of Sciences Journal
      • World Academy of Sciences Journal
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • International Journal of Functional Nutrition
      • International Journal of Functional Nutrition
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • International Journal of Epigenetics
      • International Journal of Epigenetics
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Medicine International
      • Medicine International
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
  • Articles
  • Information
    • Information for Authors
    • Information for Reviewers
    • Information for Librarians
    • Information for Advertisers
    • Conferences
  • Language Editing
Spandidos Publications Logo
  • About
    • About Spandidos
    • Aims and Scopes
    • Abstracting and Indexing
    • Editorial Policies
    • Reprints and Permissions
    • Job Opportunities
    • Terms and Conditions
    • Contact
  • Journals
    • All Journals
    • Biomedical Reports
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • International Journal of Epigenetics
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • International Journal of Functional Nutrition
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • International Journal of Molecular Medicine
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • International Journal of Oncology
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Medicine International
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Molecular and Clinical Oncology
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Molecular Medicine Reports
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Oncology Letters
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Oncology Reports
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • World Academy of Sciences Journal
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
  • Articles
  • Information
    • For Authors
    • For Reviewers
    • For Librarians
    • For Advertisers
    • Conferences
  • Language Editing
Login Register Submit
  • This site uses cookies
  • You can change your cookie settings at any time by following the instructions in our Cookie Policy. To find out more, you may read our Privacy Policy.

    I agree
Search articles by DOI, keyword, author or affiliation
Search
Advanced Search
presentation
Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine
Join Editorial Board Propose a Special Issue
Print ISSN: 1792-0981 Online ISSN: 1792-1015
Journal Cover
August-2015 Volume 10 Issue 2

Full Size Image

Sign up for eToc alerts
Recommend to Library

Journals

International Journal of Molecular Medicine

International Journal of Molecular Medicine

International Journal of Molecular Medicine is an international journal devoted to molecular mechanisms of human disease.

International Journal of Oncology

International Journal of Oncology

International Journal of Oncology is an international journal devoted to oncology research and cancer treatment.

Molecular Medicine Reports

Molecular Medicine Reports

Covers molecular medicine topics such as pharmacology, pathology, genetics, neuroscience, infectious diseases, molecular cardiology, and molecular surgery.

Oncology Reports

Oncology Reports

Oncology Reports is an international journal devoted to fundamental and applied research in Oncology.

Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine

Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine

Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine is an international journal devoted to laboratory and clinical medicine.

Oncology Letters

Oncology Letters

Oncology Letters is an international journal devoted to Experimental and Clinical Oncology.

Biomedical Reports

Biomedical Reports

Explores a wide range of biological and medical fields, including pharmacology, genetics, microbiology, neuroscience, and molecular cardiology.

Molecular and Clinical Oncology

Molecular and Clinical Oncology

International journal addressing all aspects of oncology research, from tumorigenesis and oncogenes to chemotherapy and metastasis.

World Academy of Sciences Journal

World Academy of Sciences Journal

Multidisciplinary open-access journal spanning biochemistry, genetics, neuroscience, environmental health, and synthetic biology.

International Journal of Functional Nutrition

International Journal of Functional Nutrition

Open-access journal combining biochemistry, pharmacology, immunology, and genetics to advance health through functional nutrition.

International Journal of Epigenetics

International Journal of Epigenetics

Publishes open-access research on using epigenetics to advance understanding and treatment of human disease.

Medicine International

Medicine International

An International Open Access Journal Devoted to General Medicine.

Journal Cover
August-2015 Volume 10 Issue 2

Full Size Image

Sign up for eToc alerts
Recommend to Library

  • Article
  • Citations
    • Cite This Article
    • Download Citation
    • Create Citation Alert
    • Remove Citation Alert
    • Cited By
  • Similar Articles
    • Related Articles (in Spandidos Publications)
    • Similar Articles (Google Scholar)
    • Similar Articles (PubMed)
  • Download PDF
  • Download XML
  • View XML
Article Open Access

Establishment of a new animal model of allergic rhinitis with biphasic sneezing by intranasal sensitization with Staphylococcal enterotoxin B

  • Authors:
    • Rong Sun
    • Xinye Tang
    • Hongbing Yao
    • Suling Hong
    • Yang Yang
    • Wei Kou
    • Ping Wei
  • View Affiliations / Copyright

    Affiliations: Department of Physical Examination, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, P.R. China, Department of Otolaryngology, Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Pediatric Research Institute of Chongqing Medical University, National Key Disciplinary Areas of Pediatrics, Ministry of Education, Chongqing, P.R. China, Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, P.R. China
    Copyright: © Sun et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of Creative Commons Attribution License.
  • Pages: 407-412
    |
    Published online on: May 21, 2015
       https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2015.2506
  • Expand metrics +
Metrics: Total Views: 0 (Spandidos Publications: | PMC Statistics: )
Metrics: Total PDF Downloads: 0 (Spandidos Publications: | PMC Statistics: )
Cited By (CrossRef): 0 citations Loading Articles...

This article is mentioned in:



Abstract

Allergic rhinitis (AR) is a global health problem. The effectiveness of currently available medications is limited and therefore investigation for more effective drugs is essential. The aim of the present study was to establish a model of AR in guinea pigs that can be utilized for the further investigation of new drugs. Guinea pigs were intranasally sensitized with 1 µg Staphylococcal enterotoxin B (SEB) dissolved in 40 µl saline once daily for 14 days. One week after the last sensitization, the same treatment was applied intranasally once every four days for a total of 30 times. In the treatment group, terfenadine was administered orally 70 min before the 4th, 14th and 24th challenge. Sneezing and nasal scratching were evaluated following each of the 30 challenges. The quantity of antigen-specific antibodies in the serum was measured. Between the 19th and 30th challenges, the guinea pigs in the model group produced significant biphasic elevations in sneezing number, with peaks 10 min-2 h and 4-8 h after the SEB challenges. In addition, the guinea pigs produced significantly more sneezing in the first peak during the 19th to 30th challenges than during the first to 18th challenges (P<0.01). Terfenadine significantly inhibited the early- and late‑phase sneezing at all challenge times. The serum levels of SEB-specific immunoglobulin (Ig) E and IgG1 were higher in the model group in comparison with those in the control group (P<0.01). This experiment demonstrated that SEB can induce typical AR with biphasic sneezing in guinea pigs. Histamine may play an important role in the early- and the late‑phase sneezing in the model of AR. This model can be potentially used for the investigation of new drugs.
View Figures

Figure 1

Figure 2

Figure 3

Figure 4

Figure 5

View References

1 

Meltzer EO: The pharmacological basis for the treatment of perennial allergic rhinitis and non-allergic rhinitis with topical corticosteroids. Allergy. 52 (Suppl):33–40. 1997. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

2 

Niedoszytko M, Chełmińska M, Chełmiński K, et al: Late-phase allergic reaction in nasal provocation with fungal allergens. Allergy Asthma Proc. 29:35–39. 2008. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

3 

de Graaf-in't Veld C, Garrelds IM, van Toorenenbergen AW and Gerth van Wijk R: Nasal responsiveness to allergen and histamine in patients with perennial rhinitis with and without a late phase response. Thorax. 52:143–148. 1997. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

4 

Wang D and Clement P: Assessment of early- and late-phase nasal obstruction in atopic patients after nasal allergen challenge. Clin Otolaryngol Allied Sci. 20:368–373. 1995. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

5 

Jordan TR, Rasp G, Pfrogner E and Kramer MF: An approach of immunoneurological aspects in nasal allergic late phase. Allergy Asthma Proc. 26:382–390. 2005.PubMed/NCBI

6 

Wagenmann M, Schumacher L and Bachert C: The time course of the bilateral release of cytokines and mediators after unilateral nasal allergen challenge. Allergy. 60:1132–1138. 2005. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

7 

Oldenbeuving NB, KleinJan A, Mulder PG, et al: Evaluation of an intranasal house dust mite provocation model as a tool in clinical research. Allergy. 60:751–759. 2005. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

8 

Bousquet J, Chanez P and Michel FB: Pathophysiology and treatment of seasonal allergic rhinitis. Respir Med. 84 (Suppl A):11–17. 1990. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

9 

Naclerio RM: Pathophysiology of perennial allergic rhinitis. Allergy. 52 (Suppl):7–13. 1997. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

10 

Nabe T, Mizutani N, Shimizu K, et al: Development of pollen-induced allergic rhinitis with early and late phase nasal blockage in guinea pigs. Inflamm Res. 47:369–374. 1998. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

11 

Zhao Y, van Hasselt CA, Woo KS, et al: Establishment of a modified intranasally ovalbumin induced animal model of allergic rhinitis. Zhonghua Er Bi Yan Hou Tou Jing Wai Ke Za Zhi. 40:176–180. 2005.(In Chinese). PubMed/NCBI

12 

Tang X, Sun R, Hong S, et al: Repeated intranasal instillation with staphylococcal enterotoxin B induces nasal allergic inflammation in guinea pigs. Am J Rhinol Allergy. 25:176–181. 2011. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

13 

Breuer K, Haussler S, Kapp A and Werfel T: Staphylococcus aureus: colonizing features and influence of an antibacterial treatment in adults with atopic dermatitis. Br J Dermatol. 147:55–61. 2002. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

14 

Chambers HF: The changing epidemiology of Staphylococcus aureus? Emerg Infect Dis. 7:178–182. 2001. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

15 

Becker K, Friedrich AW, Lubritz G, et al: Prevalence of genes encoding pyrogenic toxin superantigens and exfoliative toxins among strains of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from blood and nasal specimens. J Clin Microbiol. 41:1434–1439. 2003. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

16 

Sakairi T, Suzuki K, Makita S, et al: Effects of fexofenadine hydrochloride in a guinea pig model of antigen-induced rhinitis. Pharmacology. 75:76–86. 2005. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

17 

Avincsal MO, Ozbal S, Ikiz AO, Pekcetin C and Güneri EA: Effects of topical intranasal doxycycline treatment in the rat allergic rhinitis model. Clin Exp Otorhinolaryngol. 7:106–111. 2014. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

18 

Underwood DC, Osborn RR and Hand JM: Lack of late-phase airway responses in conscious guinea pigs after a variety of antigen challenges. Agents Actions. 37:191–194. 1992. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

19 

Zhao XJ: Experimental models of nasal hypersensitive reaction. Zhonghua Er Bi Yan Hou Ke Za Zhi. 28:17-8–58-9. 1993.(In Chinese).

20 

Okano M, Nishizaki K, Abe M, et al: Strain-dependent induction of allergic rhinitis without adjuvant in mice. Allergy. 54:593–601. 1999. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

21 

van de Rijn M, Mehlhop PD, Judkins A, et al: A murine model of allergic rhinitis: studies on the role of IgE in pathogenesis and analysis of the eosinophil influx elicited by allergen and eotaxin. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 102:65–74. 1998. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

22 

Wang LF, Xu LJ, Guo FH, et al: Effect of antiallergic herbal agents on chloride channel-3 and immune microenvironment in nasal mucosal epithelia of allergic rhinitis rabbits. Chin Med J (Engl). 123:1034–1038. 2010.PubMed/NCBI

23 

Tsunematsu M, Yamaji T, Kozutsumi D, et al: A new murine model of allergic rhinitis by repeated intranasal Cry j 1 challenge. Biomed Res. 29:119–123. 2008. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

24 

Zhao Y, Woo JK, Leung PC, et al: Symptomatic and pathophysiological observations in a modified animal model of allergic rhinitis. Rhinology. 43:47–54. 2005.PubMed/NCBI

25 

Lei F, Zhu D, Sun J and Dong Z: Effects of minimal persistent inflammation on nasal mucosa of experimental allergic rhinitis. Am J Rhinol Allergy. 24:e23–e28. 2010. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

26 

Yamasaki M, Mizutani N, Sasaki K, et al: Involvement of thromboxane A2 and peptide leukotrienes in early and late phase nasal blockage in a guinea pig model of allergic rhinitis. Inflamm Res. 50:466–473. 2001. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

27 

Brozmanova M, Bartos V, Plank L and Tatar M: Experimental allergic rhinitis-related cough and airway eosinophilia in sensitized guinea pigs. J Physiol Pharmacol. 58 (Suppl 5):57–65. 2007.PubMed/NCBI

28 

Nabe T, Kubota K, Mizutani N, et al: Effect of local nasal immunotherapy on nasal blockage in pollen-induced allergic rhinitis of Guinea pigs. Allergol Int. 57:419–427. 2008. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

29 

Grønborg H, Bisgaard H, Rømeling F and Mygind N: Early and late nasal symptom response to allergen challenge. The effect of pretreatment with a glucocorticosteroid spray. Allergy. 48:87–93. 1993. View Article : Google Scholar

30 

Doyle WJ, Boehm S and Skoner DP: Physiologic responses to intranasal dose-response challenges with histamine, methacholine, bradykinin, and prostaglandin in adult volunteers with and without nasal allergy. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 86:924–935. 1990. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

31 

Svensson C, Baumgarten CR, Pipkorn U, et al: Reversibility and reproducibility of histamine induced plasma leakage in nasal airways. Thorax. 44:13–18. 1989. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

32 

White MV and Kaliner MA: Mediators of allergic rhinitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 90:699–704. 1992. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

33 

Schleimer RP, Fox CC, Naclerio RM, et al: Role of human basophils and mast cells in the pathogenesis of allergic diseases. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 76:369–374. 1985. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

34 

Horak F: Clinical advantages of dual activity in allergic rhinitis. Allergy. 55 (Suppl 64):34–39. 2000. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

35 

Montoro J, Sastre J, Jáuregui I, et al: Allergic rhinitis: continuous or on demand antihistamine therapy? J Investig Allergol Clin Immunol 17 Suppl. 2:21–27. 2007.

36 

Pietrzkowicz M and Grzelewska-Rzymowska I: Histamine as a mediator of allergic inflammation. Pol Merkur Lekarski. 6:232–235. 1999.(In Polish). PubMed/NCBI

37 

Pawankar R, Yamagishi S and Yagi T: Revisiting the roles of mast cells in allergic rhinitis and its relation to local IgE synthesis. Am J Rhinol. 14:309–317. 2000. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

38 

Terada N, Hamano N, Hohki G, et al: Late phase response in nasal mucosa closely correlated with immediate phase reaction and hyperreactivity to histamine. Acta Otolaryngol. 118:392–397. 1998. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

39 

Imai N, Miyahara A, Yamazaki Y, et al: Involvement of eosinophils in the early-phase allergic reaction in a guinea pig rhinitis model. Int Arch Allergy Immunol. 122:270–278. 2000. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

40 

Milanese M, Ricca V, Canonica GW and Ciprandi G: Eosinophils, specific hyperreactivity and occurrence of late phase reaction in allergic rhinitis. Eur Ann Allergy Clin Immunol. 37:7–10. 2005.PubMed/NCBI

41 

Elovsson S, Smailagic A, Erjefalt I, et al: Evaluation of nasal barrier dysfunction at acute- and late-phase reactions in a guinea pig model of allergic rhinitis. Vascul Pharmacol. 43:267–276. 2005. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

42 

Sedgwick JB, Calhoun WJ, Gleich GJ, et al: Immediate and late airway response of allergic rhinitis patients to segmental antigen challenge. Characterization of eosinophil and mast cell mediators. Am Rev Respir Dis. 144:1274–1281. 1991. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

Related Articles

  • Abstract
  • View
  • Download
  • Twitter
Copy and paste a formatted citation
Spandidos Publications style
Sun R, Tang X, Yao H, Hong S, Yang Y, Kou W and Wei P: Establishment of a new animal model of allergic rhinitis with biphasic sneezing by intranasal sensitization with Staphylococcal enterotoxin B. Exp Ther Med 10: 407-412, 2015.
APA
Sun, R., Tang, X., Yao, H., Hong, S., Yang, Y., Kou, W., & Wei, P. (2015). Establishment of a new animal model of allergic rhinitis with biphasic sneezing by intranasal sensitization with Staphylococcal enterotoxin B. Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine, 10, 407-412. https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2015.2506
MLA
Sun, R., Tang, X., Yao, H., Hong, S., Yang, Y., Kou, W., Wei, P."Establishment of a new animal model of allergic rhinitis with biphasic sneezing by intranasal sensitization with Staphylococcal enterotoxin B". Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine 10.2 (2015): 407-412.
Chicago
Sun, R., Tang, X., Yao, H., Hong, S., Yang, Y., Kou, W., Wei, P."Establishment of a new animal model of allergic rhinitis with biphasic sneezing by intranasal sensitization with Staphylococcal enterotoxin B". Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine 10, no. 2 (2015): 407-412. https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2015.2506
Copy and paste a formatted citation
x
Spandidos Publications style
Sun R, Tang X, Yao H, Hong S, Yang Y, Kou W and Wei P: Establishment of a new animal model of allergic rhinitis with biphasic sneezing by intranasal sensitization with Staphylococcal enterotoxin B. Exp Ther Med 10: 407-412, 2015.
APA
Sun, R., Tang, X., Yao, H., Hong, S., Yang, Y., Kou, W., & Wei, P. (2015). Establishment of a new animal model of allergic rhinitis with biphasic sneezing by intranasal sensitization with Staphylococcal enterotoxin B. Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine, 10, 407-412. https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2015.2506
MLA
Sun, R., Tang, X., Yao, H., Hong, S., Yang, Y., Kou, W., Wei, P."Establishment of a new animal model of allergic rhinitis with biphasic sneezing by intranasal sensitization with Staphylococcal enterotoxin B". Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine 10.2 (2015): 407-412.
Chicago
Sun, R., Tang, X., Yao, H., Hong, S., Yang, Y., Kou, W., Wei, P."Establishment of a new animal model of allergic rhinitis with biphasic sneezing by intranasal sensitization with Staphylococcal enterotoxin B". Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine 10, no. 2 (2015): 407-412. https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2015.2506
Follow us
  • Twitter
  • LinkedIn
  • Facebook
About
  • Spandidos Publications
  • Careers
  • Cookie Policy
  • Privacy Policy
How can we help?
  • Help
  • Live Chat
  • Contact
  • Email to our Support Team