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Introduction

Cilostazol (6-[4-(1-cyclohexyl-1H-tetrazol-5-yl)butoxy]-3,4-dihydrocarbostyril, CLZ) is known to exert anti-platelet aggregation and vasodilatory effects with minimal cardiac effects (1). Therefore, CLZ has been used as a therapeutic agent for the improvement of symptoms in conditions such as cancer (2), pain accompanying chronic arterial obstruction (3), and for the amelioration (4) and, prevention of cerebral infarction (5). The agent is only administered orally because of its low water-solubility (6). However, most patients with cerebral infarction have serious secondary conditions, such as impaired consciousness or aphagia (7). Thus, sufficient blood concentration and effects cannot be obtained with commercially available CLZ tablets.

Cataplasms can be classified into two classes a transdermal absorption type and a locally acting type (8). In particular, the transdermal drug delivery patch systems have been used for various clinical treatments, such as asthma, angina, and smoking cessation (9). Transdermal absorption preparations offer several advantages: They are not subjected to the first-pass effect, but are simply applied and switched on or off in the body; ensure sustained release; and improve patient quality of life through sustained effects (8). The skin consists of the cuticle, the corium the tela subcutanea and nerves, blood vessels, and lymph vessels (10). The transdermal drug delivery patch system acts by penetrating the stratum corneum, after which the medicine is absorbed into the blood.

Many methods have been used to enhance the bioavailability of sparingly water-soluble medicaments, in particular, and nanoscale systems such as liposomes, micelles, nanocrystals, and dendrimers have been proposed as drug carriers for transdermal drug delivery systems (11).

Recently, a transdermal delivery system using nanoparticles was reported. The available pathways for the penetration of the drug through the stratum corneum are the transcellular, intracellular, and transaccessory pathways (12,13). The transcellular pathway appears to be the main pathway (12,13). The spaces between the cells are reported to be 50–70 nm (14). Therefore, the solid drug particles that are approximately the same size as the spaces between the cells, pass through the space and into peripheral blood vessels (15). Thus, nanocrystals improve bioavailability. After consideration of these reports, we aimed to prepare aqueous gel patches containing CLZ nanocrystals (CLZnano) with a particle size of <100 nm.

In this study, we designed topical formulations containing CLZnano and investigated the penetration and the retention of CLZ in rat blood after the administration of CLZnano gel patches in comparison with gelling agents for general-purpose bases. Moreover, we clarified the mechanism of the transport system of CLZnano through rat skin.

Materials and methods

Materials

CLZ powder (CLZmicro) was kindly provided by Otsuka Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd. (Tokyo, Japan). 2-Hydoxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HPβCD) was purchased from Nihon Shokuhin Kako Co., Ltd. (Tokyo, Japan), low-substituted methylcellulose (MC) was provided by Shin-Etsu Chemical Co., Ltd. (Tokyo, Japan), and docusate sodium (DS) was obtained from Sigma Co., Inc. (Tokyo, Japan). All other chemicals used were of the highest purity commercially available.

Animals

Seven-week-old male Wistar rats were used in this study (SLC Inc., Shizuoka, Japan). The animals were housed under standard conditions (12 h/day of fluorescent light (7:00 a.m.-7:00 p.m.) and 25±1°C) and allowed free access to a commercial diet (CR-3; Clea Japan Inc., Tokyo, Japan) and water. All procedures were approved by and performed in accordance with the Kindai University School of Pharmacy Committee for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (approval no. KAPS-25-002).

Preparation of the CLZnano formulation

Recrystallized CLZ was prepared as follows (16): CLZ (0.5 g) was dissolved in 50% ethanol (50 ml) at 120°C, and the extracted CLZ was placed in a sonicator (Yamato Science Co., Ltd, Tokyo, Japan) for 5 sec and allowed to stand for 24 h. Thereafter, CLZ was collected by filtration (recovery rate: 92.3%). Nanocrystals of CLZ (CLZnano) were prepared by using zirconia balls and a Pulverisette 7 Planetary Micro Mill (Fritsch Corp., Kanagawa, Japan). The zirconia balls (diameter: 10 mm) were added to recrystallized CLZ containing sodium docusate and low-substituted MC and then crushed with the Pulverisette 7 for 24 h (400 rpm). The experiment was conducted at 18–21°C (room temperature) (16).

Measurement of particle size, number and image in CLZ

The CLZ nanoparticle was evaluated using a nanoparticle size analyzer (SALD-7100; Shimadzu Co., Kyoto, Japan; refractive index 1.60–0.10i), a nanoparticle tracking size analyzer (Nanosight LM10; Malvern Instruments Ltd., Worcestershire, UK) and a scanning probe microscope (SPM-9700; Shimadzu Corp., Kyoto, Japan). In the SALD-7100, the total distribution in CLZmicro and CLZnano was 48.3±0.312 mm, 0.064±0.047 mm, respectively (mean particle size ± SD) The particle size and number by the Nanosight was measured following: purification system of the water containing 100 µg CLZnano (500 µl) was injected into the sample chamber of the unit (Nanosight LM14; Malvern Instruments Ltd.) with a syringe. The suspension temperature in the sample chamber was 25°C, the wavelength of the embedded laser was 405 nm (blue), the measurement time was 60 sec, and the viscosity of the suspension was 0.904–0.906 cP (water). The images of CLZnano were created by SPM-9700, and the particle size was measured from a cross section of the images of CLZnano.

Preparation of aqueous gel patches, gel and ointment containing CLZnano

The gel patches containing CLZnano (CLZnano gel patch) were prepared as described in Fig. 1A. The formulation of the CLZnano gel patches is described in Table I. In Fig. 1B, the completed aqueous gel patch containing CLZnano is shown. The CP gel and PEG ointment containing 0.5% CLZmicro and 0.5% CLZnano were prepared by using Crbopol® 934 (1.5 w/w%) and polyethylene glycol (94.4 w/w%, PEG400: PEG 4,000=1:1), respectively.

Figure 1. Preparation scheme of aqueous gel patches containing CLZ. (A) Preparation scheme of aqueous gel patches containing CLZ. (B) An image of aqueous gel patches containing CLZnano. CLZ, cilostazol; CLZnano, CLZ nanocrystals.

Table I. Formulations of the CLZnano gel patch.

Table I.

Formulations of the CLZnano gel patch.

Formulation	Content (w/w %)
Glycerin	15.00
Sodium polyacrylic acid	3.01
Aluminum hydroxide	0.98
Butylen glycol	0.61
Isostearic acid glyceres-25	0.31
Tartaric acid	0.24
Etylenediamintetraanmin acid-2Na	0.61
Methyl paraben	0.03
Propyl paraben	0.01
HPβCD	5.00
SM-4	0.50
Sodium docusate	0.20
CLZnano crystals	0.50

[i] The CLZ_nano gel patch was obtained by adding these contents to purified water. CLZ_nano, cilostazol nanocrystals. HPβCD, 2-hydoxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin.

In vitro skin penetration of CLZ gel patches

The in vitro skin penetration of CLZ from gel patches, CP gel, and PEG ointment experiment was evaluated by using the Franz diffusion cell (17). One day before the experiment, the hair on the abdominal area of 7-week-old Wistar rats was carefully shaved by using an electric clipper and razor. On the day of the experiment, sections of full-thickness abdominal skin (area: 3×3 cm2) were extracted from the rats and the subcutaneous fat and other visceral debris were removed from the undersurface. The dermal side of the full-thickness skin was soaked in buffer (0.85% NaCl-10 mM phosphate buffer, pH 7.4) for 12 h at 4°C to equilibrate the skin. Then, 0.3 g of 0.5% CLZ gel patches, CP gel, and PEG ointment was uniformly applied to the stratum corneum of the skin, which was then mounted on a Franz diffusion cell (reservoir volume, 12.2 ml; i.d. O-ring flange, 1.6 cm) and occluded with aluminum foil. The diffusion cells were maintained at a constant temperature of 37°C for 48 h. The in vitro skin penetration experiment was performed as described above without a membrane filter. The amount of CLZ in the filtrates was determined by HPLC. Fifty microliters of the sample was added to 100 µl methanol containing 100 µg benzophenone (internal standard) and centrifuged at 15,000 rpm for 20 min. Ten µl of this solution was injected into an ODS column (3 µm, column size: 2.0×50 mm; Inertsil ODS-3; Shimadzu Co.) by using a Shimadzu LC-10AD system equipped with a CTO-6A column oven (Shimadzu Corp., Kyoto, Japan). The mobile phase consisted of a mixture of acetonitrile/methanol/water (35/15/50, v/v/v). The flow rate was 0.25 ml/min, the column temperature was 35°C, and the wavelength used for detection was 254 nm. The obtained data were analyzed by using the following equations (equations 1 and 2):

where Jc, Km, Kp, D, τ, d, Cc and A are the CLZ penetration rate, skin/preparation partition coefficient, penetration coefficient through the skin, diffusion constant within the skin, lag time, thickness of the skin (0.071 cm, mean of five independent rats), amount of CLZ at time t, and the effective area of skin (2 cm2). A nonlinear leastsquares computer program (MULTI) was used for the calculations.

In vitro skin penetration of CLZnano from gel patches

The in vitro skin penetration of CLZnano was analyzed Franz diffusion cell (17). In addition, a membrane filter (Durapore® Membrane Filter, pore size: 0.45 µm) was set under the skin to remove the debris from the skin. The number of CLZnano in the filtrates was determined as described above A calibration curve was generated from the relationship between the number of CLZnano and the amount of CLZ measured by HPLC method described above. The release of CLZnano was evaluated by the experimental method described above without the rat skin. The prepared analytical curve was used for the evaluation of the sample concentration from the ratio of the number of particles.

Analysis of pharmacokinetics of CLZ in rats

On the day prior to the experiment, the hair on the abdominal area of the 7-week-old Wistar rats was carefully shaved with an electric clipper and razor, and a cannula filled with 30 µg/ml heparin (silicone tubing; i.d., 0.5 mm, o.d., 1.0 mm) was inserted into the right jugular vein of the rats under pentobarbital anesthesia (40 mg/kg, intraperitoneally). A sheet of CLZ gel patches (0.3 g) and gel ointment was fixed on the shaved abdominal skin with an adhesive and immediately occluded with adhesive tape. Venous blood (100 µl) was collected from the jugular vein through the cannula between 0 and 48 h after the application of the CLZ gel patches and gel ointment (18). The blood was centrifuged at 15,000 rpm for 20 min at 4°C to obtain, plasma, which was stored at −80°C until analysis. The CLZ concentrations in the samples were determined by the HPLC method described above.

CLZnano gel patches, CLZnano CP gel, and CLZnano PEG ointment were applied to Wistar rats (n=3) at a dose of 0.15 g/sheet. The rats were allowed free access to water and food throughout the experiment. The blood samples (0.1 ml) were collected from the jugular vein at 0 (pre-dose), 2, 4, 6, 8, 24, 27, 30, 33, and 48 h after the administration. The serum samples were obtained by centrifugation at 15,000 rpm for 20 min and then stored at 4°C until analysis. The CLZ concentration in the samples was determined by the HPLC method described above. The obtained data were analyzed by the using the following formula (equations 3 and 4):

where CCLZ is the CLZ concentration of blood, A and B are the contribution rates, ka is the rate content, and α and β are the elimination rate constants. The obtained data were analyzed by the simplex method and the damped Gauss-Newton method (18).

Statistical analysis

Unpaired Student's t-tests were used for statistical analysis and P-values less than 0.05 were considered significant. All data are expressed as the mean ± standard deviation (SD) or standard error of the mean (SE).

Results

Preparation of CLZnano

The particle size distribution of CLZnano is shown in Fig. 2A and B, and the particle size distribution of CLZnano is shown in Table II. The mean and mod particle sizes of CLZnano were 74.5±6.2 and 44.2±4.0 nm, respectively. The occupation percentage of nanocrystals with a diameter <200 nm diameter in CLZnano and CLZmicro was 100 and 21%, respectively. Moreover, the percentage of nanocrystals with a diameter less than 100 nm CLZnano was 80±3.2%, (mean ± SE, n=5). The SPM images of the CLZnano dispersion are shown in Fig. 2C. The particle size of CLZnano was 66.45±5.35 nm (mean ± SE, n=5). Because ground CLZnano showed no aggregation, the similarity of the particle sizes between SPM and the nanoparticle tracking analyzer provided an indication of uniform quality of the nanocrystals in CLZnano.

Figure 2. Frequency size distribution, cumulative size distribution and images of CLZnano. CLZnano were suspended using purified water. (A) Frequency size distribution of CLZnano. The numbers show the indicated peak size (29, 48, 108 and 161 nm, respectively). (B) Cumulative size distribution of CLZnano. (C) Image of CLZnano (scale bar=200 nm). The mean particle size of CLZnano was 66.45±5.35 nm (mean ± standard divation; n=5). CLZ, cilostazol; CLZnano, CLZ nanocrystals.

Table II. Ratio of nanoparticles (<1 µm) in CLZnano and CLZmicro.

Table II.

Ratio of nanoparticles (<1 µm) in CLZnano and CLZmicro.

Distribution	CLZnano (nm)	CLZmicro (nm)
Mean	74.5±6.2	236.6±35.4
Mode	44.2±4.0	144.5±26.7
SD	47.1±5.0	131.9±12.7
D10	40.0±4.1	93.4±30.3
D50	48.4±4.6	215.0±36.7
D90	144.8±10.6	447.4±44.4
Occupation % of nanoparticles number (<200 nm)	100	21

[i] The occupation and distribution nanoparticles (<1 µm) was measured using Nanosight. The data are presented as the mean ± standard error (n=5). CLZ, cilostazol; CLZ_nano, CLZ nanocrystals; CLZ_micro, CLZ powder; SD, standard deviation.

Percutaneous penetration of CLZ released from CLZmicro and CLZnano gel patches

The penetration profiles of CLZ through rat skin after the application of CLZmicro and CLZnano gel patches and ointments are shown in Fig. 3, and the pharmacokinetic parameters calculated from the in vitro skin penetration data are summarized in Table III. Regarding particle size, a significant difference was found in the CLZ gel patches and ointment between the CLZnano and CLZmicro groups; with respect to gel properties, a significant difference was found in the pharmacokinetic parameters. The amount of penetrated CLZ increased linearly after the application of either CLZ gel patches or ointment into the donor chambers, and the penetration rate (Jc) of CLZnano gel patch was 1.4-fold higher than that of the CLZmicro gel patch. The penetration coefficient through the skin (Kp) and the skin/preparation partition coefficient (Km) values of the CLZnano gel patches and ointment were significantly higher than those of the CLZmicro gel patches and ointment. The lag times (τ) for the CLZmicro and CLZnano gel patches and ointments were different. In contrast, the pharmacokinetic parameters of CLZ in the gel patches were markedly increased compared with those of the CLZ CP gel and PEG ointment.

Figure 3. Changes in CLZ concentration following the application of CLZ aqueous gel patch, gel and ointment. CLZmicro gel patch (open circles), CLZmicro gel patch-applied rat skin; CLZnano gel patch (closed circles), CLZnano gel patch-applied rat skin; CLZmicro CP gel (open triangles), CLZmicro CP gel-applied rat skin; CLZnano CP gel (closed triangles), CLZnano CP gel-applied rat skin; CLZmicro PEG ointment (open squares), CLZmicro PEG ointment-applied rat skin; CLZnano PEG ointment (closed squares), CLZnano PEG ointment-applied rat skin. Data are presented as the mean ± standard error (n=3–5). *P<0.05 vs. the CLZmicro gel patch groups within each category. CLZ, cilostazol; CLZnano, CLZ nanocrystals; CLZmicro, CLZ powder; PEG, polyethylene glycol; CP, carbopol.

Table III. Pharmacokinetic parameters for in vitro percutaneous penetration of CLZ from CLZnano gel patch and carbopol gel and polyethylene glycol ointments.

Table III.

Pharmacokinetic parameters for in vitro percutaneous penetration of CLZ from CLZnano gel patch and carbopol gel and polyethylene glycol ointments.

A, Patch
Preparation	τ (h)	D (×10−4 cm2/h)	Jc (ng/cm2/h)	Kp (×10−4 cm/h)	Km
CLZnano gel	1.75±0.46a	4.81±1.83a	686±51.90a,b	1.37±0.10a,b	2.03±0.66a,b
CLZmicro gel	1.82±0.46	4.61±1.83	474±112.7	0.95±0.23	1.46±0.36
B, Ointment
Preparation	τ (h)	D (×10−4 cm2/h)	Jc (ng/cm2/h)	Kp (×10−4 cm/h)	Km
CLZnano CP gel	3.75±1.78	3.04±2.33	306±67.40	0.88±0.19	0.03±0.01
CLZmicro CP gel	5.52±1.95	1.83±1.10	104±29.20	0.30±0.08	0.01±0.01
CLZnano PEG	6.75±0.64	1.47±0.16	160±11.80	0.46±0.03	0.02±0.01
CLZmicro PEG	N.D.	N.D.	N.D.	N.D.	N.D.

{ label (or @symbol) needed for fn[@id='tfn3-etm-0-0-5820'] } Parameters were calculated according to equations 1 and 2. The compositions of the CLZ gel patch are shown in Table I. The data are presented as means ± standard errpr of 3 independent rats.

a P<0.05 vs. other preparation without CLZ_micro gel patch

b P<0.05 vs. CLZ_micro gel patch. CLZ, cilostazol; CLZ_nano, CLZ nanocrystals; CLZ_micro, CLZ powder; CP, carbopol; PEG, polyethylene glycol; J_c CLZ penetration rate; K_p, penetration coefficient through the skin; K_m, skin/preparation partition coefficient; τ, lag time; D, diffusion constant within the skin; N.D., not detectable.

The calibration curve between the number of CLZnano with an average particle diameter of 200 nm and the concentration of CLZ is shown in Fig. 4. The calibration curve was shown as a straight line with the slope of 4.68×10−8 mg/particle number and correlation coefficient (r)=0.972. In Fig. 5, the profiles of the penetrated CLZnano in the in vitro skin penetration experiment are shown. The nanocrystals with an average particle diameter <200 nm were detected in a reservoir chamber, and the number of nanocrystals increased with the incubation time. As shown in Fig. 5, the penetration rate (Jc) of the CLZnano gel patch and the CLZmicro gel patch was 769.9 and 367.6 ng/cm2/h, respectively. Therefore, 98% of penetrated CLZ after the application of CLZnano gel patch to rat skin was observed in the nanocrystal form; for the CLZmicro gel patch, the value was 96%.

Figure 4. Correlation curve between the number of CLZ nanocrystals and the concentration of CLZ. Data are presented as the mean ± standard error (n=3–5). CLZ, cilostazol.

Figure 5. Changes in solution CLZ nanocrystals counts following application of CLZ aqueous gel patch. CLZmicro gel patch, CLZmicro gel patch-applied rat skin; CLZnano gel patch, CLZnano gel patch-applied rat skin. Solid lines are shown as fitting curves using equation 1 and the penetrated content profiles of CLZ nanocrystal particles. The dotted lines are shown as fitting curves using Equation 1 and penetrated CLZ concentration calculated by the conversion factor. The particle size of CLZnano following percutaneous penetration remain nano order (216.1±10.7 nm). Dotted lines are the actual value of CLZ from in vitro skin penetration experiments. Data are presented as the mean ± standard error (n=3–5). *P<0.05 vs. CLZmicro gel patch group. CLZ, cilostazol; CLZnano, CLZ nanocrystals; CLZmicro, CLZ powder.

The absorption profiles of CLZ through rat skin in vivo after the application of CLZnano gel patches and ointments are shown in Fig. 6; Table IV summarizes the pharmacokinetic parameters calculated from the in vivo percutaneous absorption data. The plasma concentration of CLZ increased after the application of the CLZnano gel patches, and the apparent absorption rate constant (ka) and AUC0-48 h values in the skin of rats administered the CLZnano gel patches were significantly higher than those of rats administered the CLZnano gel and ointment, but the lag time was decreased.

Figure 6. Plasma CLZ concentrations following the application of CLZnano aqueous gel patches and gel ointments. The rats were fasted for 18 h prior to the experiments; however they were given free access to water. CLZnano aqueous gel patch or gel ointment (3 mg/kg) were applied to the rats. Solid lines represent the fitting curves calculated from equations 3 and 4. CLZnano gel patch, CLZnano gel patch-applied rat skin; CLZnano CP gel ointment, CLZnano CP gel ointment-applied rat skin; CLZnano PEG gel ointment, CLZnano PEG gel ointment-applied rat skin. Data are presented as the mean ± standard error (n=3). *P<0.05 vs. CLZnano CP gel ointment groups; #P<0.05 vs. CLZnano PEG ointment groups. CLZ, cilostazol; CLZnano, CLZ nanocrystals; CLZmicro, CLZ powder; PEG, polyethylene glycol; CP, carbopol.

Table IV. Pharmacokinetic parameters for in vivo percutaneous absorption of CLZ following the application of CLZnano gel patch and ointments.

Table IV.

Pharmacokinetic parameters for in vivo percutaneous absorption of CLZ following the application of CLZnano gel patch and ointments.

Preparation	τ (h)	ka (/h)	A (µg/ml)	B (µg/ml)	AUC (µg/ml)	MRT (h)	BA (%)
CLZnano gel patch	0.71±0.03a	19.03±2.08a,b	0.15±0.16	99.08±22.10a,b	7.51±0.48a,b	34.36±3.09a,b	63.3±0.6a,b
CLZnano CP gel ointment	2.66±1.09	11.70±4.08	8.06±1.14	4.99±1.3	2.92±0.94b	25.05±0.60	24.5±1.3b
CLZnano PEG ointment	5.75±0.55	7.06±0.15	4.58±0.28	3.81±0.47	1.53±0.35	29.86±2.05	12.9±0.2

{ label (or @symbol) needed for fn[@id='tfn6-etm-0-0-5820'] } Parameters were calculated according to equations 3 and 4. The compositions of the CLZ_nano gel patch are shown in Table I. The data are presented as the mean ± standard error of 3 independent rats.

a P<0.05 vs. CLZ_nano CP gel for each category

b P<0.05 vs. CLZ_nano PEG ointment for each category. CLZ, cilostazol; CLZ_nano, CLZ nanocrystals; CLZ_micro, CLZ powder; CP, carbopol; PEG, polyethylene glycol; τ, lag time; k_a, absorption rate constant; A, contribution rates in the α-phase; B, contribution rates in the β-phase; BA, bioavailability; AUC, area under the curve; MRT, mean residence time.

Discussion

Sparingly water-soluble medicaments have poor oral absorption. We have previously designed drug nanocrystals by a combination of recrystallization and the breakdown method using a ball mill (16) and shown that CLZnano enhanced drug bioavailability in the small intestine of rats (16).

In this study, we confirmed the diameter of CLZnano by using a nanoparticle tracking size analyzer and a scanning probe microscope. Moreover, we designed new transdermal drug delivery formulations containing CLZnano using hydrophilic polymeric gelling agents, and investigated the penetration of CLZ through rat skin.

First, we attempted to measure the diameter of the CLZnano. Recently, nanocrystals have been thoroughly evaluated for their potential as a tool to carry drug payloads, image contrast agents, or gene therapeutics for disease diagnosis and treatment, with the primary focus on cancer (19–27). It is known that the behavior of nanoparticles <100 nm is unique (19). Nanocrystals possess different physical and chemical properties as well as optical and electromagnetic characteristics (19). The diameter of CLZnano was measured by using a nanoparticle tracking size analyzer and a scanning probe microscope. In this study, the mean diameter of CLZnano measured by using a tracking size analyzer was <100 nm, but the cumulative distribution indicated that approximately 20% of the CLZnano were >100 nm (Fig. 2A and B). Therefore, we visually evaluated the images of the CLZnano captured by using a scanning probe microscope to confirm the size of the nanocrystals visually. In these images, nanocrystals with a primary particle size of 30–80 nm were clearly visible and comprised a majority of the primary particles and a few secondary particles comprising agglomerated or flocculated primary particles (Fig. 2C). However, the secondary particles are moved and crushed by the extremely small power of the probe cantilever of the SPM. This suggests that the secondary particles are transient and crushed to the primary particles, and that the number of secondary particles that are >100 nm is almost negligible.

In this study, we prepared an aqueous gel patch containing CLZnano, with excellent drug release properties, skin permeability and skin permeation rate, quantitative drug release even in long term application and showed excellent retention. The data indicated that the milled CLZnano were homogeneous with a narrow particle size distribution. It is reported that nanoparticles from organic compounds are able to move through the spaces between the cells (28). In a previous study, we reported that recrystallization was suitable for the preparation of nanocrystals by using mill methods (16). These results suggested that the CLZ released from the CLZnano gel patches was in a nanocrystal state.

The successful delivery of a drug across the skin requires a high-performance drug delivery device (29). Clinically, the most common bases for transdermal therapeutic systems are CP gel and PEG ointment, which are used pharmaceutically as lubricants and also as carriers for many drugs (30,31). Aqueous gel patches using high molecular weight polymer have attracted attention as a new base in the cosmetics industry (32). Therefore, we prepared an aqueous gel patch containing CLZnano by using high molecular weight polymer absorbent, which has excellent drug release and skin permeation properties, skin permeation rate, quantitative release of a drug, even in long term application and with excellent retention, which allowed the uniform incorporation of the CLZnano. As shown by the above results, the gel patch using aqueous high molecular weight polymer absorbents shows excellent release properties and sustainability against rat skin and are subsequently extremely useful as a transdermal absorption base.

These results show that the formula developed in this study was suitable for the preparation of aqueous gel patches containing CLZnano. The diffusion constant within the penetration rate (Jc), the penetration coefficient through the skin (Kp), and the skin/preparation partition coefficient (Km) for the CLZnano gel patch were all significantly higher than those of the CLZmicro gel patch, CLZnano and CLZmicro gel ointment. Only lag time of CLZnano gel patch is shorter than others (Fig. 3, Table III). These results suggested that the CLZnano gel patches were exceptionally well suited for the base of percutaneous absorption type formulation.

In addition to this, we attempted to clarify the absorption mechanism by counting the number of CLZnano that permeated the rat skin from the CLZ gel patches. According to the calibration straight line and the penetration profiles of CLZnano, a positive correlation was found between the number of CLZnano and the penetration of CLZ. Moreover, the predicted values that were calculated from the number of CLZnano and actual measurements were almost the same quantities (Figs. 4 and 5). These results suggested that the CLZnano smaller than 100 nm were transferred through the spaces in rat skin and into peripheral blood vessels. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report to elucidate the permeation mechanism of nanoparticles in the percutaneous absorption experiment. Thus, we are now conducting a more detailed investigation of some details about the absorption mechanism of CLZnano.

In the in vivo study, the CLZ concentrations in the plasma of rats administered the CLZnano gel patches were also significantly higher than those of rats administered the CLZnano CP gel and PEG ointment (Table IV, Fig. 6). In this study, we have shown that the supply of CLZ from the CLZnano gel patches was higher than that from the CLZnano CP and PEG gel ointment. Therefore, the abundant supply of CLZ from the CLZnano gel patches may be related to the CLZ concentrations in the plasma. These results showed that the characteristics of the CLZnano gel patches in skin differ and suggested that the effects of local and systemic therapy were greater after the application of the CLZnano gel patches than the CLZnano CP and PEG gel ointment. In addition, it is important to clarify a suitable formulation for the transdermal therapeutic system for ischemic stroke symptoms using CLZnano. Therefore, we are now investigating the therapeutic effects of transdermal systems by using CLZnano and various additives on ischemic stroke symptoms.

In conclusion, we have developed a new aqueous gel patch system that includes CLZnano by using recrystallization and a planetary micro mill. The penetration of CLZ is attributed to the nanoscale crystals. The percutaneous penetration of CLZ from the CLZnano gel patches through the rat skin was significantly better than that from the CLZnano CP gel and PEG ointment. Moreover, we have clarified the mechanism of the transparency system of CLZnano through the rat skin. Thus, our findings suggest that a transdermal therapeutic system using nanocrystals may enable the application of medications without high systemic levels to provide an efficient and effective therapy and to spare patients from unwanted side effects. A transdermal formulation using CLZnano may provide a delivery option for clinical treatment of ischemic stroke symptoms.

Glossary

Abbreviations

Abbreviations:

References