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Multi‑omics analysis of glutamine and fish collagen peptides in alleviating post‑antibiotic Streptococcus pneumoniae injury in feline lung cells

  • Authors:
    • Huasong Bai
    • Tong Liu
    • Hengyan Wang
    • Hongchen Jin
    • Yunliang Li
    • Zhanzhong Wang
  • View Affiliations / Copyright

    Affiliations: Nourse Science Centre for Pet Nutrition, Wuhu, Anhui 241200, P.R. China, School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu 212013, P.R. China
    Copyright: © Bai et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of Creative Commons Attribution License.
  • Article Number: 148
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    Published online on: March 30, 2026
       https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2026.13143
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Abstract

Streptococcus pneumoniae (SP) infection often leads to persistent lung injury even after antibiotic treatment. Despite this phenomenon, the mechanisms underlying host cell recovery remain poorly understood. Upon breaching the epithelial barrier, SP primarily targets the pulmonary interstitial cells, which constitute the major mesenchymal component of the lung. These cells serve as essential effectors of tissue repair, extracellular matrix remodeling and epithelial restoration. Therefore, a feline pulmonary interstitial cell (FCA‑L2) model of SP infection was established to investigate the protective effects of glutamine (GLU) and fish collagen peptides (FCP) through integrated transcriptomic and metabolomic analyses. Cells were infected with SP (0.05 McFarland units for 4 h) and then treated with doxycycline (7.5 µg/ml for 18 h) followed by GLU (40 mM) or FCP (500 µg/ml). Notably, SP infection increased lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release by 3.5‑fold, induced secretion of IL‑1β, TNF‑α and IL‑8, disrupted tight‑junction proteins (claudin, ZO‑1 and occludin) and caused oxidative imbalance and apoptosis despite antibiotic (doxycycline) treatment. However, treatment with GLU or FCP significantly reduced LDH release by ~40%, restored junctional proteins, suppressed inflammatory cytokines and enhanced antioxidant enzyme activities. Multi‑omics analysis revealed that GLU promoted amino acid biosynthesis and energy metabolism and suppressed aminoacyl‑tRNA synthetases and cell‑cycle regulators, thereby enhancing metabolic adaptability. By contrast, FCP activated amino and nucleotide sugar metabolism, increased polyunsaturated fatty‑acid synthesis and supported glycocalyx repair and membrane reconstruction. GLU and FCP provided complementary metabolic and structural protection, which mitigated post‑infectious stress and promoted cellular recovery. The findings of the present study underscore the potential of bioactive food‑derived compounds as adjunctive therapies that may accelerate lung tissue repair and enhance the efficacy of conventional antibiotics.
View Figures

Figure 1

Effects of GLU and FCP on
cytotoxicity, cytokine levels and tight junction protein expression
in SP-infected feline lung FCA-L2 cells. (A) LDH release following
SP infection at different durations and bacterial concentrations.
NC: untreated cells in minimum essential medium; NC-Dox: cells
treated with 3.75 µg/ml Dox for 18 h; SP + 2 h + Dox and SP + 4 h +
Dox: SP infection for 2 or 4 h, followed by 3.75 µg/ml Dox
treatment for 18 h. (B) Time-course assessment of LDH release after
SP infection (0.05 McF, 4 h) followed by doxycycline treatment
(3.75 µg/ml) for 12, 18, 24 or 30 h. The NC + DOX group represents
uninfected cells treated with DOX for the corresponding duration.
(C) Cell viability of FCA-L2 cells after treatment with different
concentrations of GLU (left) or FCP (right), assessed using the
Cell Counting Kit-8 assay. (D) LDH release after SP infection (4 h)
followed by 18 h treatment with GLU or FCP in the presence of 3.75
µg/ml Dox. The SP group received Dox alone. (E) Levels of IL-1β,
TNF-α and IL-8 in the supernatant of SP-infected cells treated with
GLU (40 mM) or FCP (500 µg/ml). (F) Expression of tight junction
proteins, including E-cadherin, occludin, claudin and ZO-1, after
GLU or FCP treatment. All data are presented as mean ± standard
deviation (n≥4 per group). Different lowercase letters (a-d)
indicate significant differences (P<0.05), while groups sharing
at least one common letter show no statistically significant
difference. GLU, glutamine; FCP, fish collagen peptides; SP,
Streptococcus pneumoniae; ZO-1, zonula occludens-1; NC,
negative control; Dox, doxycycline; McF, McFarland; LDH, lactate
dehydrogenase.

Figure 2

Effects of GLU and FCP on morphology,
apoptosis and oxidative stress in SP-infected FCA-L2 cells. (A)
Morphological changes (crystal violet staining, scale bars, 200 and
50 µm) and apoptosis (Annexin V-FITC/PI staining, scale bar, 100
µm) in each group following intervention with GLU (40 mM) or FCP
(500 µg/ml). The right panels show the corresponding quantitative
bar charts for relative cell density and the relative percentage of
apoptotic cells following intervention with GLU (40 mM) or FCP (500
ug/ml). (B) MDA levels; (C) Ratio of T-AOC/TOS; (D) SOD levels; and
(E) GPX levels. All data are expressed as mean ± standard deviation
(n≥4 per group). Different lowercase letters (a-c) indicate
significant differences (P<0.05), while groups sharing at least
one common letter show no statistically significant difference.
GLU, glutamine; FCP, fish collagen peptides; SP, Streptococcus
pneumoniae; MDA, malondialdehyde; SOD, superoxide dismutase;
MDA, malondialdehyde; T-AOC, total anti-oxidant capacity; TOS,
total oxidant capacity; GPX, glutathione peroxidase.

Figure 3

Transcriptomic profiling and
identification of DEGs. (A) PCA showing distinct clustering among
NC, SP, GLU_SP and FCP_SP groups. (B) Heatmap of DEGs based on
FPKM-normalized values; columns represent sample groups and rows
represent individual genes. (C) Venn diagram showing the number of
unique and overlapping DEGs among groups. (D) Bar plot summarizing
the number of upregulated and downregulated DEGs in each
comparison. Data were based on reference-guided RNA sequencing (n=4
per group). DGES, differentially expressed genes; PCA, Principal
component analysis; GLU, glutamine; FCP, fish collagen peptides;
SP, Streptococcus pneumoniae; SOD, superoxide dismutase;
MDA, malondialdehyde; NC, negative control.

Figure 4

KEGG-GSEA enrichment analysis of
SP-infected FCA-L2 cells. (A) Bubble plot of enriched KEGG pathways
in SP vs. NC. The y-axis represents enriched pathways, the x-axis
shows the ES, where positive values indicate upregulation and
negative values indicate downregulation. Bubble size reflects the
number of enriched genes and color represents the false discovery
rate (q-value). (B-D) GSEA enrichment plots and heatmaps of core
genes in significantly enriched pathways, including (B)
aminoacyl-tRNA biosynthesis, (C) endocytosis and (D)
glycerophospholipid metabolism. Upper panels show the ES curve with
the peak corresponding to the pathway's ES value. Lower panels
display hierarchical clustering heatmaps of leading-edge core genes
in each pathway. KEGG, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes;
GSEA, gene set enrichment analysis; SP, Streptococcus
pneumoniae; NC, negative control; ES, enrichment score.

Figure 5

KEGG-based GSEA of transcriptomic
changes in FCA-L2 cells following GLU treatment after SP infection.
(A) KEGG enrichment bubble plot of pathways significantly altered
in the GLU_SP vs. SP group. The x-axis indicates ES, bubble size
represents the number of core genes and bubble color corresponds to
FDR values. (B-F) GSEA enrichment plots and heatmaps of core genes
enriched in representative pathways, including (B) cell cycle, (C)
aminoacyl-tRNA biosynthesis, (D) p53 signaling pathway, (E)
biosynthesis of nucleotide sugars and (F) amino sugar and
nucleotide sugar metabolism. Heatmaps display Z-score normalized
expression levels (n=4 per group). KEGG, Kyoto Encyclopedia of
Genes and Genomes; GSEA, gene set enrichment analysis; GLU,
glutamine; SP, Streptococcus pneumoniae; NC, negative
control; ES, enrichment score; FDR, false discovery rate.

Figure 6

KEGG-based GSEA of transcriptomic
changes in FCA-L2 cells following FCP treatment after SP infection.
(A) KEGG enrichment bubble plot showing pathways significantly
regulated in the FCP_SP vs. SP group. The x-axis represents ES,
bubble size indicates the number of enriched genes and color
corresponds to the FDR. (B-F) GSEA enrichment plots and heatmaps of
core genes in selected pathways, including (B) aminoacyl-tRNA
biosynthesis, (C) biosynthesis of amino acids, (D) p53 signaling
pathway, (E) amino sugar and nucleotide sugar metabolism and (F)
biosynthesis of nucleotide sugars. Heatmaps show Z-score-normalized
gene expression (n=4 per group). KEGG, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes
and Genomes; GSEA, gene set enrichment analysis; FCP, fish collagen
peptides; SP, Streptococcus pneumoniae; NC, negative
control; ES, enrichment score; FDR, false discovery rate.

Figure 7

Untargeted metabolomic profiling and
pathway enrichment analysis in FCA-L2 cells. (A) PC analysis score
plot showing sample distribution across treatment groups. (B)
Volcano plots of differential metabolites in SP vs. NC, GLU_SP vs.
SP and FCP_SP vs. SP comparisons. Significantly changed metabolites
are colored by fold change and significance threshold. (C)
Metabolite set enrichment analysis comparing SP vs. NC, GLU_SP vs.
SP and FCP_SP vs. SP. The x-axis represents comparison groups; the
y-axis lists enriched Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes
pathways; NES>0 indicates pathway upregulation. (D) Enrichment
plots of downregulated metabolites in glycerophospholipid
metabolism and arginine and proline metabolism (SP vs. NC). (E)
Enrichment plots showing downregulation of glycerophospholipid
metabolism and upregulation of purine metabolism (GLU_SP vs. SP).
(F) Enrichment plots showing upregulated metabolites in
biosynthesis of amino acids and biosynthesis of unsaturated fatty
acids (FCP_SP vs. SP). PC, principal component; GLU, glutamine;
FCP, fish collagen peptides; SP, Streptococcus pneumoniae;
NC, negative control; QC, quality control; NES, normalized
enrichment score.

Figure 8

Integrated transcriptomic and
metabolomic analysis of FCA-L2 cells. (A) Bar plot showing the
number of differentially expressed genes and differential
metabolites in SP vs. NC, GLU_SP vs. SP and FCP_SP vs. SP
comparisons. (B-D) Joint Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes
enrichment analysis of transcriptomic and metabolomic datasets
using hypergeometric testing. Bubble plots show commonly enriched
pathways in (B) SP vs. NC, (C) GLU_SP vs. SP and (D) FCP_SP vs. SP
groups. The x-axis represents-log(P-value) based on Fisher's exact
test. Bubble size indicates total number of molecules mapped to the
pathway and shape indicates omics source. GLU, glutamine; FCP, fish
collagen peptides; SP, Streptococcus pneumoniae; NC,
negative control; Tran, transcriptomics; meta, metabolomics.

Figure 9

Correlation analysis between key
genes and metabolites derived from joint transcriptomic-metabolomic
enrichment. (A) Pearson correlation heatmap showing associations
between differentially expressed genes and differential metabolites
in the GLU_SP vs. SP group. (B) Pearson correlation heatmap showing
associations between differentially expressed genes and
differential metabolites in the FCP_SP vs. SP group. Pearson
correlation coefficients were calculated to evaluate the
consistency of variation trends between gene expression and
metabolite abundance. Positive correlations indicate coordinated
changes, whereas negative correlations indicate inverse regulatory
relationships. Each grid is annotated with the corresponding
correlation coefficient. Hierarchical clustering was applied to
both genes and metabolites to identify functional association
modules. GLU, glutamine; FCP, fish collagen peptides; SP,
Streptococcus pneumoniae
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Copy and paste a formatted citation
Spandidos Publications style
Bai H, Liu T, Wang H, Jin H, Li Y and Wang Z: Multi‑omics analysis of glutamine and fish collagen peptides in alleviating post‑antibiotic <em>Streptococcus pneumoniae</em> injury in feline lung cells. Exp Ther Med 31: 148, 2026.
APA
Bai, H., Liu, T., Wang, H., Jin, H., Li, Y., & Wang, Z. (2026). Multi‑omics analysis of glutamine and fish collagen peptides in alleviating post‑antibiotic <em>Streptococcus pneumoniae</em> injury in feline lung cells. Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine, 31, 148. https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2026.13143
MLA
Bai, H., Liu, T., Wang, H., Jin, H., Li, Y., Wang, Z."Multi‑omics analysis of glutamine and fish collagen peptides in alleviating post‑antibiotic <em>Streptococcus pneumoniae</em> injury in feline lung cells". Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine 31.6 (2026): 148.
Chicago
Bai, H., Liu, T., Wang, H., Jin, H., Li, Y., Wang, Z."Multi‑omics analysis of glutamine and fish collagen peptides in alleviating post‑antibiotic <em>Streptococcus pneumoniae</em> injury in feline lung cells". Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine 31, no. 6 (2026): 148. https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2026.13143
Copy and paste a formatted citation
x
Spandidos Publications style
Bai H, Liu T, Wang H, Jin H, Li Y and Wang Z: Multi‑omics analysis of glutamine and fish collagen peptides in alleviating post‑antibiotic <em>Streptococcus pneumoniae</em> injury in feline lung cells. Exp Ther Med 31: 148, 2026.
APA
Bai, H., Liu, T., Wang, H., Jin, H., Li, Y., & Wang, Z. (2026). Multi‑omics analysis of glutamine and fish collagen peptides in alleviating post‑antibiotic <em>Streptococcus pneumoniae</em> injury in feline lung cells. Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine, 31, 148. https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2026.13143
MLA
Bai, H., Liu, T., Wang, H., Jin, H., Li, Y., Wang, Z."Multi‑omics analysis of glutamine and fish collagen peptides in alleviating post‑antibiotic <em>Streptococcus pneumoniae</em> injury in feline lung cells". Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine 31.6 (2026): 148.
Chicago
Bai, H., Liu, T., Wang, H., Jin, H., Li, Y., Wang, Z."Multi‑omics analysis of glutamine and fish collagen peptides in alleviating post‑antibiotic <em>Streptococcus pneumoniae</em> injury in feline lung cells". Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine 31, no. 6 (2026): 148. https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2026.13143
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