Spandidos Publications Logo
  • About
    • About Spandidos
    • Aims and Scopes
    • Abstracting and Indexing
    • Editorial Policies
    • Reprints and Permissions
    • Job Opportunities
    • Terms and Conditions
    • Contact
  • Journals
    • All Journals
    • Oncology Letters
      • Oncology Letters
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • International Journal of Oncology
      • International Journal of Oncology
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Molecular and Clinical Oncology
      • Molecular and Clinical Oncology
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine
      • Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • International Journal of Molecular Medicine
      • International Journal of Molecular Medicine
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Biomedical Reports
      • Biomedical Reports
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Oncology Reports
      • Oncology Reports
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Molecular Medicine Reports
      • Molecular Medicine Reports
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • World Academy of Sciences Journal
      • World Academy of Sciences Journal
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • International Journal of Functional Nutrition
      • International Journal of Functional Nutrition
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • International Journal of Epigenetics
      • International Journal of Epigenetics
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Medicine International
      • Medicine International
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
  • Articles
  • Information
    • Information for Authors
    • Information for Reviewers
    • Information for Librarians
    • Information for Advertisers
    • Conferences
  • Language Editing
Spandidos Publications Logo
  • About
    • About Spandidos
    • Aims and Scopes
    • Abstracting and Indexing
    • Editorial Policies
    • Reprints and Permissions
    • Job Opportunities
    • Terms and Conditions
    • Contact
  • Journals
    • All Journals
    • Biomedical Reports
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • International Journal of Epigenetics
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • International Journal of Functional Nutrition
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • International Journal of Molecular Medicine
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • International Journal of Oncology
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Medicine International
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Molecular and Clinical Oncology
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Molecular Medicine Reports
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Oncology Letters
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • Oncology Reports
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
    • World Academy of Sciences Journal
      • Information for Authors
      • Editorial Policies
      • Editorial Board
      • Aims and Scope
      • Abstracting and Indexing
      • Bibliographic Information
      • Archive
  • Articles
  • Information
    • For Authors
    • For Reviewers
    • For Librarians
    • For Advertisers
    • Conferences
  • Language Editing
Login Register Submit
  • This site uses cookies
  • You can change your cookie settings at any time by following the instructions in our Cookie Policy. To find out more, you may read our Privacy Policy.

    I agree
Search articles by DOI, keyword, author or affiliation
Search
Advanced Search
presentation
International Journal of Molecular Medicine
Join Editorial Board Propose a Special Issue
Print ISSN: 1107-3756 Online ISSN: 1791-244X
Journal Cover
June-2021 Volume 47 Issue 6

Full Size Image

Sign up for eToc alerts
Recommend to Library

Journals

International Journal of Molecular Medicine

International Journal of Molecular Medicine

International Journal of Molecular Medicine is an international journal devoted to molecular mechanisms of human disease.

International Journal of Oncology

International Journal of Oncology

International Journal of Oncology is an international journal devoted to oncology research and cancer treatment.

Molecular Medicine Reports

Molecular Medicine Reports

Covers molecular medicine topics such as pharmacology, pathology, genetics, neuroscience, infectious diseases, molecular cardiology, and molecular surgery.

Oncology Reports

Oncology Reports

Oncology Reports is an international journal devoted to fundamental and applied research in Oncology.

Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine

Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine

Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine is an international journal devoted to laboratory and clinical medicine.

Oncology Letters

Oncology Letters

Oncology Letters is an international journal devoted to Experimental and Clinical Oncology.

Biomedical Reports

Biomedical Reports

Explores a wide range of biological and medical fields, including pharmacology, genetics, microbiology, neuroscience, and molecular cardiology.

Molecular and Clinical Oncology

Molecular and Clinical Oncology

International journal addressing all aspects of oncology research, from tumorigenesis and oncogenes to chemotherapy and metastasis.

World Academy of Sciences Journal

World Academy of Sciences Journal

Multidisciplinary open-access journal spanning biochemistry, genetics, neuroscience, environmental health, and synthetic biology.

International Journal of Functional Nutrition

International Journal of Functional Nutrition

Open-access journal combining biochemistry, pharmacology, immunology, and genetics to advance health through functional nutrition.

International Journal of Epigenetics

International Journal of Epigenetics

Publishes open-access research on using epigenetics to advance understanding and treatment of human disease.

Medicine International

Medicine International

An International Open Access Journal Devoted to General Medicine.

Journal Cover
June-2021 Volume 47 Issue 6

Full Size Image

Sign up for eToc alerts
Recommend to Library

  • Article
  • Citations
    • Cite This Article
    • Download Citation
    • Create Citation Alert
    • Remove Citation Alert
    • Cited By
  • Similar Articles
    • Related Articles (in Spandidos Publications)
    • Similar Articles (Google Scholar)
    • Similar Articles (PubMed)
  • Download PDF
  • Download XML
  • View XML

  • Supplementary Files
    • Supplementary_Data1.pdf
    • Supplementary_Data2.xlsx
    • Supplementary_Data3.xlsx
    • Supplementary_Data4.xlsx
Review Open Access

Current and innovative methods for the diagnosis of COVID‑19 infection (Review)

  • Authors:
    • Luca Falzone
    • Giuseppe Gattuso
    • Aristidis Tsatsakis
    • Demetrios A. Spandidos
    • Massimo Libra
  • View Affiliations / Copyright

    Affiliations: Epidemiology and Biostatistics Unit, National Cancer Institute‑IRCCS ‘Fondazione G. Pascale’, I‑80131 Naples, Italy, Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, I‑95123 Catania, Italy, Department of Forensic Sciences and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Crete, 71003 Heraklion, Greece, Laboratory of Clinical Virology, Medical School, University of Crete, 71003 Heraklion, Greece
    Copyright: © Falzone et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of Creative Commons Attribution License.
  • Article Number: 100
    |
    Published online on: April 12, 2021
       https://doi.org/10.3892/ijmm.2021.4933
  • Expand metrics +
Metrics: Total Views: 0 (Spandidos Publications: | PMC Statistics: )
Metrics: Total PDF Downloads: 0 (Spandidos Publications: | PMC Statistics: )
Cited By (CrossRef): 0 citations Loading Articles...

This article is mentioned in:



Abstract

The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID‑19) pandemic has forced the scientific community to rapidly develop highly reliable diagnostic methods in order to effectively and accurately diagnose this pathology, thus limiting the spread of infection. Although the structural and molecular characteristics of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‑CoV‑2) were initially unknown, various diagnostic strategies useful for making a correct diagnosis of COVID‑19 have been rapidly developed by private research laboratories and biomedical companies. At present, rapid antigen or antibody tests, immunoenzymatic serological tests and molecular tests based on RT‑PCR are the most widely used and validated techniques worldwide. Apart from these conventional methods, other techniques, including isothermal nucleic acid amplification techniques, clusters of regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats/Cas (CRISPR/Cas)‑based approaches or digital PCR methods are currently used in research contexts or are awaiting approval for diagnostic use by competent authorities. In order to provide guidance for the correct use of COVID‑19 diagnostic tests, the present review describes the diagnostic strategies available which may be used for the diagnosis of COVID‑19 infection in both clinical and research settings. In particular, the technical and instrumental characteristics of the diagnostic methods used are described herein. In addition, updated and detailed information about the type of sample, the modality and the timing of use of specific tests are also discussed.
View Figures

Figure 1

Figure 2

Figure 3

Figure 4

Figure 5

Figure 6

Figure 7

Figure 8

Figure 9

Figure 10

View References

1 

Bontempi E: The europe second wave of COVID-19 infection and the Italy 'strange' situation. Environ Res. 193:1104762021. View Article : Google Scholar

2 

Cacciapaglia G, Cot C and Sannino F: Second wave COVID-19 pandemics in Europe: A temporal playbook. Sci Rep. 10:155142020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

3 

COVID-19 Dashboard by the Center for Systems Science and Engineering (CSSE) Jonhs Hopkins University (JHU). https://gisanddata.maps.arcgis.com/apps/opsdashboard/index.html#/bda7594740fd40299423467b48e9ecf6. Accessed February 27, 2021.

4 

Polack FP, Thomas SJ, Kitchin N, Absalon J, Gurtman A, Lockhart S, Perez JL, Pérez Marc G, Moreira ED, Zerbini C; C4591001 Clinical Trial Group; et al: Safety and Efficacy of the BNT162b2 mRNA Covid-19 Vaccine. N Engl J Med. 383:2603–2615. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

5 

European Medicine Agency (EMA): COVID-19 Vaccines. https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/human-regulatory/overview/public-health-threats/coronavirus-disease-covid-19/treatments-vaccines/covid-19-vaccines. Accessed February 27, 2021.

6 

Dong E, Du H and Gardner L: An interactive web-based dashboard to track COVID-19 in real time. Lancet Infect Dis. 20:533–534. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

7 

Pullano G, Di Domenico L, Sabbatini CE, Valdano E, Turbelin C, Debin M, Guerrisi C, Kengne-Kuetche C, Souty C, Hanslik T, et al: Underdetection of cases of COVID-19 in France threatens epidemic control. Nature. 590:134–139. 2021. View Article : Google Scholar

8 

O'Dowd A: Covid-19: Avoid indoor mixing over Christmas or risk third wave, warns iSAGE. BMJ. 371:m48322020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

9 

Farsalinos K, Poulas K, Kouretas D, Vantarakis A, Leotsinidis M, Kouvelas D, Docea AO, Kostoff R, Gerotziafas GT, Antoniou MN, et al: Improved strategies to counter the COVID-19 pandemic: Lockdowns vs. primary and community healthcare. Toxicol Rep. 8:1–9. 2021. View Article : Google Scholar

10 

Liu S and Pan C: Differentiating diagnosis of COVID-19 or influenza in patients based on laboratory data during flu season. EClinicalMedicine. 26:1005112020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

11 

García-Basteiro AL, Chaccour C, Guinovart C, Llupià A, Brew J, Trilla A and Plasencia A: Monitoring the COVID-19 epidemic in the context of widespread local transmission. Lancet Respir Med. 8:440–442. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

12 

Wu AHB: Screening the General Population for SARS-CoV-2 Virus and COVID-19 Antibodies: A Counterargument. J Appl Lab Med. 5:1107–1110. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

13 

Rostami A, Sepidarkish M, Leeflang MMG, Riahi SM, Nourollahpour Shiadeh M, Esfandyari S, Mokdad AH, Hotez PJ and Gasser RB: SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence worldwide: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Microbiol Infect. 27:331–340. 2021. View Article : Google Scholar

14 

Wells PM, Doores KJ, Couvreur S, Nunez RM, Seow J, Graham C, Acors S, Kouphou N, Neil SJD, Tedder RS, et al: Estimates of the rate of infection and asymptomatic COVID-19 disease in a population sample from SE England. J Infect. 81:931–936. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

15 

Ji T, Liu Z, Wang G, Guo X, Akbar Khan S, Lai C, Chen H, Huang S, Xia S, Chen B, et al: Detection of COVID-19: A review of the current literature and future perspectives. Biosens Bioelectron. 166:1124552020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

16 

Sanyaolu A, Okorie C, Marinkovic A, Ayodele O, Abbasi AF, Prakash S, Ahmed M, Kayode D, Jaferi U and Haider N: Navigating the diagnostics of COVID-19. SN Compr Clin Med. Jul 25–2020.Epub ahead of print. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

17 

European Commission (EC): Current performance of COVID-19 test methods and devices and proposed performance criteria. EC; Brussels: 2020, https://ec.europa.eu/docsroom/documents/40805. Accessed January 2, 2021.

18 

Taleghani N and Taghipour F: Diagnosis of COVID-19 for controlling the pandemic: A review of the state-of-the-art. Biosens Bioelectron. 174:1128302021. View Article : Google Scholar

19 

Jung J, Jang H, Kim HK, Kim J, Kim A and Ko KP: The Importance of Mandatory COVID-19 Diagnostic Testing Prior to Release from Quarantine. J Korean Med Sci. 35:e3142020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

20 

Winter AK and Hegde ST: The important role of serology for COVID-19 control. Lancet Infect Dis. 20:758–759. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

21 

Vandenberg O, Martiny D, Rochas O, van Belkum A and Kozlakidis Z: Considerations for diagnostic COVID-19 tests. Nat Rev Microbiol. 19:171–183. 2021. View Article : Google Scholar

22 

Tromberg BJ, Schwetz TA, Pérez-Stable EJ, Hodes RJ, Woychik RP, Bright RA, Fleurence RL and Collins FS: Rapid scaling up of Covid-19 diagnostic testing in the United States - The NIH RADx Initiative. N Engl J Med. 383:1071–1077. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

23 

Guglielmi G: The explosion of new coronavirus tests that could help to end the pandemic. Nature. 583:506–509. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

24 

Tsatsakis A, Calina D, Falzone L, Petrakis D, Mitrut R, Siokas V, Pennisi M, Lanza G, Libra M, Doukas SG, et al: SARS-CoV-2 pathophysiology and its clinical implications: An integrative overview of the pharmacotherapeutic management of COVID-19. Food Chem Toxicol. 146:1117692020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

25 

Alpdagtas S, Ilhan E, Uysal E, Sengor M, Ustundag CB and Gunduz O: Evaluation of current diagnostic methods for COVID-19. APL Bioeng. 4:0415062020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

26 

Wu F, Zhao S, Yu B, Chen YM, Wang W, Song ZG, Hu Y, Tao ZW, Tian JH, Pei YY, et al: A new coronavirus associated with human respiratory disease in China. Nature. 579:265–269. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

Erratum. Nature. 580:E72020.

27 

Zhu N, Zhang D, Wang W, Li X, Yang B, Song J, Zhao X, Huang B, Shi W, Lu R, et al: China novel coronavirus investigating and research team: a novel coronavirus from patients with pneumonia in China 2019. N Engl J Med. 382:727–733. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

28 

Kumar R, Nagpal S, Kaushik S and Mendiratta S: COVID-19 diagnostic approaches: Different roads to the same destination. Virusdisease. 31:97–105. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

29 

Brun AL, Gence-Breney A, Trichereau J, Ballester MC, Vasse M, Chabi ML, Mellot F and Grenier PA: COVID-19 pneumonia: High diagnostic accuracy of chest CT in patients with intermediate clinical probability. Eur Radiol. 31:1969–1977. 2021. View Article : Google Scholar

30 

Martinez RM: Clinical samples for SARS-CoV-2 detection: Review of the early literature. Clin Microbiol Newsl. 42:121–127. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

31 

Rao GG, Agarwal A and Batura D: Testing times in Coronavirus disease (COVID-19): A tale of two nations. Med J Armed Forces India. 76:243–249. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

32 

Jarvis KF and Kelley JB: Temporal dynamics of viral load and false negative rate influence the levels of testing necessary to combat COVID19 spread. medRxiv. View Article : Google Scholar

33 

Rode OĐ, Kurolt IC, Puljiz I, Čivljak R, Balent NC, Laškaj R, Tiljak MK, Mikulić R and Markotić A: Antibody response and the clinical presentation of patients with COVID-19 in Croatia: The importance of a two-step testing approach. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 40:261–268. 2021. View Article : Google Scholar

34 

Bisoffi Z, Pomari E, Deiana M, Piubelli C, Ronzoni N, Beltrame A, Bertoli G, Riccardi N, Perandin F, Formenti F, et al: Sensitivity, specificity and predictive values of molecular and serological tests for COVID-19: a longitudinal study in emergency room. Diagnostics (Basel). 10:6692020. View Article : Google Scholar

35 

Krajewski R, Gołębiowska J, Makuch S, Mazur G and Agrawal S: Update on serologic testing in COVID-19. Clin Chim Acta. 510:746–750. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

36 

Guo L, Ren L, Yang S, Xiao M, Chang D, Yang F, Dela Cruz CS, Wang Y, Wu C, Xiao Y, et al: Profiling early humoral response to diagnose novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19). Clin Infect Dis. 71:778–785. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

37 

Chirumbolo S: Swabbing Thoroughly People for COVID-19 Positivity. Insights on the Main Bio-analytical and Microbiology Bias and Concerns. Curr Microbiol. 77:3680–3684. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

38 

Lippi G, Simundic AM and Plebani M: Potential preanalytical and analytical vulnerabilities in the laboratory diagnosis of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Clin Chem Lab Med. 58:1070–1076. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

39 

Ora J, Puxeddu E, Cavalli F, Giorgino FM, Girolami A, Chiocchi M, Sergiacomi G, Federici M and Rogliani P: Does bronchoscopy help the diagnosis in COVID-19 infection? Eur Respir J. 56:20016192020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

40 

Tong Y, Bao A, Chen H, Huang J, Lv Z, Feng L, Cheng Y, Wang Y, Bai L, Rao W, et al: Necessity for detection of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in multiple types of specimens for the discharge of the patients with COVID-19. J Transl Med. 18:4112020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

41 

McFee DRB: COVID-19 Laboratory Testing/CDC Guidelines. Dis Mon. 66:1010672020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

42 

Fu Y, Li Y, Guo E, He L, Liu J, Yang B, Li F, Wang Z, Li Y, Xiao R, et al: Dynamics and correlation among viral positivity, seroconversion, and disease severity in COVID-19: a retrospective study. Ann Intern Med. 8:M20–M3337. 2020.

43 

Mesoraca A, Margiotti K, Viola A, Cima A, Sparacino D and Giorlandino C: Evaluation of SARS-CoV-2 viral RNA in fecal samples. Virol J. 17:862020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

44 

Ng SC and Tilg H: COVID-19 and the gastrointestinal tract: More than meets the eye. Gut. 69:973–974. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

45 

Long DR, Gombar S, Hogan CA, Greninger AL, O'Reilly-Shah V, Bryson-Cahn C, Stevens B, Rustagi A, Jerome KR, Kong CS, et al: Occurrence and timing of subsequent severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction positivity among initially negative patients. Clin Infect Dis. 72:323–326. 2021. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

46 

Mahendiratta S, Batra G, Sarma P, Kumar H, Bansal S, Kumar S, Prakash A, Sehgal R and Medhi B: Molecular diagnosis of COVID-19 in different biologic matrix, their diagnostic validity and clinical relevance: A systematic review. Life Sci. 258:1182072020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

47 

da Silva SJR, Silva CTAD, Guarines KM, Mendes RPG, Pardee K, Kohl A and Pena L: Clinical and Laboratory Diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2, the Virus Causing COVID-19. ACS Infect Dis. 6:2319–2336. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

48 

Li D, Zhang J and Li J: Primer design for quantitative real-time PCR for the emerging Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2. Theranostics. 10:7150–7162. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

49 

Chan JF, Kok KH, Zhu Z, Chu H, To KK, Yuan S and Yuen KY: Genomic characterization of the 2019 novel human-pathogenic coronavirus isolated from a patient with atypical pneumonia after visiting Wuhan. Emerg Microbes Infect. 9:221–236. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

50 

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC): CDC's Diagnostic Test for COVID-19 Only and Supplies. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/lab/virus-requests.html. Accessed January 5, 2021.

51 

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC): Research Use Only 2019-Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) Real-time RT-PCR Primers and Probes. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/lab/rt-pcr-panel-primer-probes.html. Accessed January 5, 2021.

52 

Dorlass EG, Monteiro CO, Viana AO, Soares CP, Machado RRG, Thomazelli LM, Araujo DB, Leal FB, Candido ED, Telezynski BL, et al: Lower cost alternatives for molecular diagnosis of COVID-19: Conventional RT-PCR and SYBR Green-based RT-qPCR. Braz J Microbiol. 51:1117–1123. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

53 

Neilan AM, Losina E, Bangs AC, Flanagan C, Panella C, Eskibozkurt GE, Mohareb A, Hyle EP, Scott JA, Weinstein MC, et al: Clinical Impact, Costs, and Cost-Effectiveness of Expanded SARS-CoV-2 Testing in Massachusetts. Clin Infect Dis. Sep 18–2020.Epub ahead of print. View Article : Google Scholar

54 

Smyrlaki I, Ekman M, Lentini A, Rufino de Sousa N, Papanicolaou N, Vondracek M, Aarum J, Safari H, Muradrasoli S, Rothfuchs AG, et al: Massive and rapid COVID-19 testing is feasible by extraction-free SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR. Nat Commun. 11:48122020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

55 

U.S Food & Drug: COVID-19 tests and collection kits authorized by the FDA in 2020: Infographic. https://www.fda.gov/medical-devices/coronavirus-covid-19-and-medical-devices/covid-19-tests-and-collection-kits-authorized-fda-2020-infographic. Accessed January 8, 2021.

56 

Fomsgaard AS and Rosenstierne MW: An alternative workflow for molecular detection of SARS-CoV-2 - escape from the NA extraction kit-shortage, Copenhagen, Denmark, March 2020. Euro Surveill. 25:20003982020. View Article : Google Scholar

57 

Udugama B, Kadhiresan P, Kozlowski HN, Malekjahani A, Osborne M, Li VYC, Chen H, Mubareka S, Gubbay JB and Chan WCW: Diagnosing COVID-19: The Disease and Tools for Detection. ACS Nano. 14:3822–3835. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

58 

Ravi N, Cortade DL, Ng E and Wang SX: Diagnostics for SARS-CoV-2 detection: A comprehensive review of the FDA-EUA COVID-19 testing landscape. Biosens Bioelectron. 165:1124542020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

59 

Wells CR, Townsend JP, Pandey A, Moghadas SM, Krieger G, Singer B, McDonald RH, Fitzpatrick MC and Galvani AP: Optimal COVID-19 quarantine and testing strategies. Nat Commun. 12:3562021. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

60 

Bustin SA and Nolan T: RT-qPCR Testing of SARS-CoV-2: A Primer. Int J Mol Sci. 21:30042020. View Article : Google Scholar :

61 

Böger B, Fachi MM, Vilhena RO, Cobre AF, Tonin FS and Pontarolo R: Systematic review with meta-analysis of the accuracy of diagnostic tests for COVID-19. Am J Infect Control. 49:21–29. 2021. View Article : Google Scholar

62 

Kucirka LM, Lauer SA, Laeyendecker O, Boon D and Lessler J: Variation in false-negative rate of reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction-based SARS-CoV-2 tests by time since exposure. Ann Intern Med. 173:262–267. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

63 

Afzal A: Molecular diagnostic technologies for COVID-19: Limitations and challenges. J Adv Res. 26:149–159. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

64 

Tahamtan A and Ardebili A: Real-time RT-PCR in COVID-19 detection: Issues affecting the results. Expert Rev Mol Diagn. 20:453–454. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

65 

Pan Y, Long L, Zhang D, Yuan T, Cui S, Yang P, Wang Q and Ren S: Potential false-negative nucleic acid testing results for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 from thermal inactivation of samples with low viral loads. Clin Chem. 66:794–801. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

66 

Li Y, Yao L, Li J, Chen L, Song Y, Cai Z and Yang C: Stability issues of RT-PCR testing of SARS-CoV-2 for hospitalized patients clinically diagnosed with COVID-19. J Med Virol. 92:903–908. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

67 

World Health Organization (WHO): Recommendations for laboratories testing by PCR for presence of SARS coronavirus-RNA. WHO; Geneva: 2020, https://www.who.int/csr/sars/coronarec-ommendations/en/. Accessed January 26, 2021.

68 

Cerutti F, Burdino E, Milia MG, Allice T, Gregori G, Bruzzone B and Ghisetti V: Urgent need of rapid tests for SARS CoV-2 antigen detection: Evaluation of the SD-Biosensor antigen test for SARS-CoV-2. J Clin Virol. 132:1046542020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

69 

Olalekan A, Iwalokun B, Akinloye OM, Popoola O, Samuel TA and Akinloye O: COVID-19 rapid diagnostic test could contain transmission in low- and middle-income countries. Afr J Lab Med. 9:12552020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

70 

Augustine R, Das S, Hasan ASA, Abdul Salam S, Augustine P, Dalvi YB, Varghese R, Primavera R, Yassine HM, et al: Rapid antibody-based COVID-19 mass surveillance: relevance, challenges, and prospects in a pandemic and post-pandemic world. J Clin Med. 9:33722020. View Article : Google Scholar :

71 

Albert E, Torres I, Bueno F, Huntley D, Molla E, Fernández-Fuentes MÁ, Martínez M, Poujois S, Forqué L, Valdivia A, et al: Field evaluation of a rapid antigen test (Panbio™ COVID-19 Ag Rapid Test Device) for COVID-19 diagnosis in primary healthcare centres. Clin Microbiol Infect. 27:472.e7–472.e10. 2021. View Article : Google Scholar

72 

Pilarowski G, Lebel P, Sunshine S, Liu J, Crawford E, Marquez C, Rubio L, Chamie G, Martinez J, Peng J, et al: Performance characteristics of a rapid SARS-CoV-2 antigen detection assay at a public plaza testing site in San Francisco. J Infect Dis. Jan 4–2021.Epub ahead of print. View Article : Google Scholar :

73 

Lee JH, Choi M, Jung Y, Lee SK, Lee CS, Kim J, Kim J, Kim NH, Kim BT and Kim HG: A novel rapid detection for SARS-CoV-2 spike 1 antigens using human angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2). Biosens Bioelectron. 171:1127152021. View Article : Google Scholar

74 

Diao B, Wen K, Zhang J, Chen J, Han C, Chen Y, Wang S, Deng G, Zhou H and Wu Y: Accuracy of a nucleocapsid protein antigen rapid test in the diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Clin Microbiol Infect. 27:289.e1–289.e4. 2021. View Article : Google Scholar

75 

Carter LJ, Garner LV, Smoot JW, Li Y, Zhou Q, Saveson CJ, Sasso JM, Gregg AC, Soares DJ, Beskid TR, et al: Assay Techniques and Test Development for COVID-19 Diagnosis. ACS Cent Sci. 6:591–605. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

76 

Huang C, Wen T, Shi FJ, Zeng XY and Jiao YJ: Rapid detection of igm antibodies against the SARS-CoV-2 virus via colloidal gold nanoparticle-based lateral-flow assay. ACS Omega. 5:12550–12556. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

77 

Mak GC, Cheng PK, Lau SS, Wong KK, Lau CS, Lam ET, Chan RC and Tsang DN: Evaluation of rapid antigen test for detection of SARS-CoV-2 virus. J Clin Virol. 129:1045002020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

78 

Lanser L, Bellmann-Weiler R, Öttl KW, Huber L, Griesmacher A, Theurl I and Weiss G: Evaluating the clinical utility and sensitivity of SARS-CoV-2 antigen testing in relation to RT-PCR Ct values. Infection. 13:1–3. 2020.

79 

Dinnes J, Deeks JJ, Adriano A, Berhane S, Davenport C, Dittrich S, Emperador D, Takwoingi Y, Cunningham J, Beese S, et al: Cochrane COVID-19 Diagnostic Test Accuracy Group: Rapid, point-of-care antigen and molecular-based tests for diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 8:CD0137052020.

80 

Montesinos I, Gruson D, Kabamba B, Dahma H, Van den Wijngaert S, Reza S, Carbone V, Vandenberg O, Gulbis B, Wolff F, et al: Evaluation of two automated and three rapid lateral flow immunoassays for the detection of anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies. J Clin Virol. 128:1044132020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

81 

Prazuck T, Colin M, Giachè S, Gubavu C, Seve A, Rzepecki V, Chevereau-Choquet M, Kiani C, Rodot V, Lionnet E, et al: Evaluation of performance of two SARS-CoV-2 Rapid IgM-IgG combined antibody tests on capillary whole blood samples from the fingertip. PLoS One. 15:e02376942020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

82 

Jacobs J, Kühne V, Lunguya O, Affolabi D, Hardy L and Vandenberg O: Implementing COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2) rapid diagnostic tests in Sub-Saharan Africa: a review. Front Med (Lausanne). 7:5577972020. View Article : Google Scholar

83 

La Rosa Fabián C and Urquizo Briceño L: Anti-SARS-Cov-2 IgA in Current Scenario of IgM and IgG Rapid Test: A New Alternative for the Diagnostic of COVID-19. SN Compr Clin Med. 26:1–3. 2020.

84 

Canetti D, Dell'Acqua R, Riccardi N, Della Torre L, Bigoloni A, Muccini C, Bruzzesi E, Ranzenigo M, Chiurlo M, Racca S, et al: SARS-CoV-2 IgG/IgM Rapid Test as a Diagnostic Tool in Hospitalized Patients and Healthcare Workers, at a large Teaching Hospital in northern Italy, during the 2020 COVID-19 Pandemic. New Microbiol. 43:161–165. 2020.PubMed/NCBI

85 

Alhajj M and Farhana A: Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay. StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing; Treasure Island, FL: 2020

86 

Tré-Hardy M, Wilmet A, Beukinga I, Favresse J, Dogné JM, Douxfils J and Blairon L: Analytical and clinical validation of an ELISA for specific SARS-CoV-2 IgG, IgA, and IgM anti-bodies. J Med Virol. 93:803–811. 2021. View Article : Google Scholar

87 

Freeman B, Lester S, Mills L, Rasheed MAU, Moye S, Abiona O, Hutchinson GB, Morales-Betoulle M, Krapinunaya I, Gibbons A, et al: Validation of a SARS-CoV-2 spike protein ELISA for use in contact investigations and serosurveillance. bioRxiv. View Article : Google Scholar

88 

Korth J, Wilde B, Dolff S, Anastasiou OE, Krawczyk A, Jahn M, Cordes S, Ross B, Esser S, Lindemann M, et al: SARS-CoV-2-specific antibody detection in healthcare workers in Germany with direct contact to COVID-19 patients. J Clin Virol. 128:1044372020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

89 

Alharbi SA, Almutairi AZ, Jan AA and Alkhalify AM: Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the detection of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) IgM/IgA and IgG antibodies among healthcare workers. Cureus. 12:e102852020.PubMed/NCBI

90 

Stringhini S, Wisniak A, Piumatti G, Azman AS, Lauer SA, Baysson H, De Ridder D, Petrovic D, Schrempft S, Marcus K, et al: Seroprevalence of anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgG antibodies in Geneva, Switzerland (SEROCoV-POP): A population-based study. Lancet. 396:313–319. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

91 

Vashist SK: In vitro diagnostic assays for COVID-19: recent advances and emerging trends. Diagnostics (Basel). 10:2022020. View Article : Google Scholar

92 

Tanaka Y, Kamimura K, Nakamura R, Ohkoshi-Yamada M, Koseki Y, Mizusawa T, Ikarashi S, Hayashi K, Sato H, Sakamaki A, et al: Usefulness of ultrasonography to assess the response to steroidal therapy for the rare case of type 2b immunoglobulin G4-related sclerosing cholangitis without pancreatitis: A case report. World J Clin Cases. 8:5821–5830. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

93 

AvŞar T, ÇaliŞ Ş, Yilmaz B, Demİrcİ OtluoĞlu G, Holyavkİn C and Kili CT: Genome-wide identification of Chiari malformation type I associated candidate genes and chromosomal variations. Turk J Biol. 44:449–456. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar

94 

La Marca A, Capuzzo M, Paglia T, Roli L, Trenti T and Nelson SM: Testing for SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19): A systematic review and clinical guide to molecular and serological in-vitro diagnostic assays. Reprod Biomed Online. 41:483–499. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

95 

Sheikhzadeh E, Eissa S, Ismail A and Zourob M: Diagnostic techniques for COVID-19 and new developments. Talanta. 220:1213922020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

96 

Zhu N, Wang W, Liu Z, Liang C, Wang W, Ye F, Huang B, Zhao L, Wang H, Zhou W, et al: Morphogenesis and cytopathic effect of SARS-CoV-2 infection in human airway epithelial cells. Nat Commun. 11:39102020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

97 

Leland DS and Ginocchio CC: Role of cell culture for virus detection in the age of technology. Clin Microbiol Rev. 20:49–78. 2007. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

98 

Jain R, Sarkale P, Mali D, Shete AM, Patil DY, Majumdar T, Suryawanshi A, Patil S, Mohandas S and Yadav PD: Inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 by gamma irradiation. Indian J Med Res. Nov 27–2020.Epub ahead of print. PubMed/NCBI

99 

Park WB, Kwon NJ, Choi SJ, Kang CK, Choe PG, Kim JY, Yun J, Lee GW, Seong MW, Kim NJ, et al: Virus Isolation from the First Patient with SARS-CoV-2 in Korea. J Korean Med Sci. 35:e842020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

100 

Zhao J, Zhou H, Huang W, Zhou J, Qiu M, Deng Z, Chen L, Weng Y, Cai L, Gu Y, et al: Cell morphological analysis of SARS-CoV-2 infection by transmission electron microscopy. J Thorac Dis. 12:4368–4373. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

101 

Akilesh S, Nicosia RF, Alpers CE, Tretiakova M, Hsiang TY, Gale M Jr and Smith KD: Characterizing viral infection by electron microscopy: lessons from the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic. Am J Pathol. 191:222–227. 2021. View Article : Google Scholar

102 

Goldsmith CS, Tatti KM, Ksiazek TG, Rollin PE, Comer JA, Lee WW, Rota PA, Bankamp B, Bellini WJ and Zaki SR: Ultrastructural characterization of SARS coronavirus. Emerg Infect Dis. 10:320–326. 2004. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

103 

Bain W, Lee JS, Watson AM and Stitt-Fischer MS: Practical guidelines for collection, manipulation and inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 clinical specimens. Curr Protoc Cytom. 93:e772020.PubMed/NCBI

104 

Wu SY, Yau HS, Yu MY, Tsang HF, Chan LWC, Cho WCS, Shing Yu AC, Yuen Yim AK, Li MJW, Wong YKE, et al: The diagnostic methods in the COVID-19 pandemic, today and in the future. Expert Rev Mol Diagn. 20:985–993. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

105 

Chan JF, Yuan S, Kok KH, To KK, Chu H, Yang J, Xing F, Liu J, Yip CC, Poon RW, et al: A familial cluster of pneumonia associated with the 2019 novel coronavirus indicating person-to-person transmission: A study of a family cluster. Lancet. 395:514–523. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

106 

Wang M, Fu A, Hu B, Tong Y, Liu R, Liu Z, Gu J, Xiang B, Liu J, Jiang W, et al: Nanopore targeted sequencing for the accurate and comprehensive detection of SARS-CoV-2 and other respiratory viruses. Small. 16:e20021692020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

107 

Addetia A, Xie H, Roychoudhury P, Shrestha L, Loprieno M, Huang ML, Jerome KR and Greninger AL: Identification of multiple large deletions in ORF7a resulting in in-frame gene fusions in clinical SARS-CoV-2 isolates. J Clin Virol. 129:1045232020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

108 

Di Giallonardo F, Duchene S, Puglia I, Curini V, Profeta F, Cammà C, Marcacci M, Calistri P, Holmes EC and Lorusso A: Genomic Epidemiology of the First Wave of SARS-CoV-2 in Italy. Viruses. 12:14382020. View Article : Google Scholar :

109 

Moore SC, Penrice-Randal R, Alruwaili M, Randle N, Armstrong S, Hartley C, Haldenby S, Dong X, Alrezaihi A, Almsaud M, et al: Amplicon-Based Detection and Sequencing of SARS-CoV-2 in Nasopharyngeal Swabs from Patients With COVID-19 and Identification of Deletions in the Viral Genome That Encode Proteins Involved in Interferon Antagonism. Viruses. 12:11642020. View Article : Google Scholar :

110 

Kames J, Holcomb DD, Kimchi O, DiCuccio M, Hamasaki-Katagiri N, Wang T, Komar AA, Alexaki A and Kimchi-Sarfaty C: Sequence analysis of SARS-CoV-2 genome reveals features important for vaccine design. Sci Rep. 10:156432020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

111 

Conti P, Caraffa A, Gallenga CE, Kritas SK, Frydas I, Younes A, Di Emidio P, Tetè G, Pregliasco F and Ronconi G: The British variant of the new coronavirus-19 (Sars-Cov-2) should not create a vaccine problem. J Biol Regul Homeost Agents. 35:1–4. 2021.

112 

Hourdel V, Kwasiborski A, Balière C, Matheus S, Batéjat CF, Manuguerra JC, Vanhomwegen J and Caro V: rapid genomic characterization of SARS-CoV-2 by direct amplicon-based sequencing through comparison of MinION and Illumina iSeq100TM system. Front Microbiol. 11:5713282020. View Article : Google Scholar :

113 

illumina: Comprehensive Workf low for Detecting Coronavirus Using Illumina Benchtop Systems - A Shotgun Metagenomics Sequencing Workflow for Effective Detection and Characterization of Coronavirus Strains. https://www.illumina.com/content/dam/illumina-marketing/documents/products/appnotes/ngs-coronavirus-app-note-1270-2020-001.pdf. Accessed January 20, 2021.

114 

Oxford Nanopore Technologies MinION - Powerful, real-time, long-read sequencing in the palm of your hand. https://nanoporetech.com/sites/default/files/s3/literature/MinION-Mk1C-brochure.pdf. Accessed January 20, 2021.

115 

Meredith LW, Hamilton WL, Warne B, Houldcroft CJ, Hosmillo M, Jahun AS, Curran MD, Parmar S, Caller LG, Caddy SL, et al: Rapid implementation of SARS-CoV-2 sequencing to investigate cases of health-care associated COVID-19: A prospective genomic surveillance study. Lancet Infect Dis. 20:1263–1271. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

116 

Wen F, Yu H, Guo J, Li Y, Luo K and Huang S: Identification of the hyper-variable genomic hotspot for the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2. J Infect. 80:671–693. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

117 

Lam TT: Tracking the Genomic Footprints of SARS-CoV-2 Transmission. Trends Genet. 36:544–546. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

118 

Landete P, Quezada Loaiza CA, Aldave-Orzaiz B, Muñiz SH, Maldonado A, Zamora E, Sam Cerna AC, Del Cerro E, Alonso RC and Couñago F: Clinical features and radiological manifestations of COVID-19 disease. World J Radiol. 12:247–260. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

119 

Chen H, Ai L, Lu H and Li H: Clinical and imaging features of COVID-19. Radiol Infect Dis. 7:43–50. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

120 

Al-Qahtani M, AlAli S, AbdulRahman A, Salman Alsayyad A, Otoom S and Atkin SL: The prevalence of asymptomatic and symptomatic COVID-19 in a cohort of quarantined subjects. Int J Infect Dis. 102:285–288. 2021. View Article : Google Scholar

121 

Yanes-Lane M, Winters N, Fregonese F, Bastos M, Perlman-Arrow S, Campbell JR and Menzies D: Proportion of asymptomatic infection among COVID-19 positive persons and their transmission potential: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 15:e02415362020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

122 

Katopodis P, Kerslake R, Davies J, Randeva HS, Chatha K, Hall M, Spandidos DA, Anikin V, Polychronis A, Robertus JL, et al: COVID 19 and SARS CoV 2 host cell entry mediators: Expression profiling of TMRSS4 in health and disease. Int J Mol Med. 47:642021. View Article : Google Scholar

123 

Vivarelli S, Falzone L, Torino F, Scandurra G, Russo G, Bordonaro R, Pappalardo F, Spandidos DA, Raciti G and Libra M: Immune-checkpoint inhibitors from cancer to COVID-19: A promising avenue for the treatment of patients with COVID-19 (Review). Int J Oncol. 58:145–157. 2021. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

124 

Vivarelli S, Falzone L, Grillo CM, Scandurra G, Torino F and Libra M: Cancer Management during COVID-19 Pandemic: Is Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors-Based Immunotherapy Harmful or Beneficial? Cancers (Basel). 12:22372020. View Article : Google Scholar

125 

Abdi A, Jalilian M, Sarbarzeh PA and Vlaisavljevic Z: Diabetes and COVID-19: A systematic review on the current evidences. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 166:1083472020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

126 

Huang S, Wang J, Liu F, Liu J, Cao G, Yang C, Liu W, Tu C, Zhu M and Xiong B: COVID-19 patients with hypertension have more severe disease: A multicenter retrospective observational study. Hyperte Res. 43:824–831. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar

127 

Pascarella G, Strumia A, Piliego C, Bruno F, Del Buono R, Costa F, Scarlata S and Agrò FE: COVID-19 diagnosis and management: A comprehensive review. J Intern Med. 288:192–206. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

128 

Torre La G, Massetti AP, Antonelli G, Fimiani C, Fantini M, Marte M, Faticoni A, Previte CM, Turriziani O, Pugliese F, et al: Covid-Sapienza Collaborative Group: Anosmia and Ageusia as Predictive Signs of COVID-19 in Healthcare Workers in Italy: A Prospective Case-Control Study. J Clin Med. 9:28702020. View Article : Google Scholar

129 

Tanasa IA, Manciuc C, Carauleanu A, Navolan DB, Bohiltea RE and Nemescu D: Anosmia and ageusia associated with coronavirus infection (COVID-19) - what is known? Exp Ther Med. 20:2344–2347. 2020.PubMed/NCBI

130 

Pennisi M, Lanza G, Falzone L, Fisicaro F, Ferri R and Bella R: SARS-CoV-2 and the Nervous System: From Clinical Features to Molecular Mechanisms. Int J Mol Sci. 21:54752020. View Article : Google Scholar :

131 

Connors JM and Levy JH: COVID-19 and its implications for thrombosis and anticoagulation. Blood. 135:2033–2040. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

132 

Diao B, Wang C, Tan Y, Chen X, Liu Y, Ning L, Chen L, Li M, Liu Y, Wang G, et al: Reduction and functional exhaustion of T cells in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Front Immunol. 11:8272020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

133 

Basu-Ray I, Almaddah Nk, Adeboye A and Soos MP: Cardiac Manifestations Of Coronavirus. StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing; Treasure Island, FL: 2020

134 

Garland V, Kumar AB and Borum ML: Gastrointestinal and hepatic manifestations of COVID-19: evolving recognition and need for increased understanding in vulnerable populations. J Natl Med Assoc. Aug 15–2020.Epub ahead of print.

135 

Baj J, Karakuła-Juchnowicz H, Teresiński G, Buszewicz G, Ciesielka M, Sitarz E, Forma A, Karakuła K, Flieger W, Portincasa P, et al: COVID-19: Specific and non-specific clinical manifestations and symptoms: the current state of knowledge. J Clin Med. 9:17532020. View Article : Google Scholar :

136 

Renu K, Prasanna PL and Valsala Gopalakrishnan A: Coronaviruses pathogenesis, comorbidities and multi-organ damage - A review. Life Sci. 255:1178392020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

137 

Chang MC, Lee W, Hur J and Park D: Chest Computed Tomography Findings in Asymptomatic Patients with COVID-19. Respiration. 99:748–754. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

138 

Jędrusik P, Gaciong Z, Sklinda K, Sierpiński R, Walecki J and Gujski M: Diagnostic role of chest computed tomography in coronavirus disease 2019. Pol Arch Intern Med. 130:520–528. 2020.

139 

Kang EY, Staples CA, McGuinness G, Primack SL and Müller NL: Detection and differential diagnosis of pulmonary infections and tumors in patients with AIDS: Value of chest radiography versus CT. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 166:15–19. 1996. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

140 

Larici AR, Cicchetti G, Marano R, Merlino B, Elia L, Calandriello L, Del Ciello A, Farchione A, Savino G, Infante A, et al: Multimodality imaging of COVID-19 pneumonia: From diagnosis to follow-up. A comprehensive review. Eur J Radiol. 131:1092172020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

141 

Ippolito D, Maino C, Pecorelli A, Allegranza P, Cangiotti C, Capodaglio C, Mariani I, Giandola T, Gandola D, Bianco I, et al: Chest X-ray features of SARS-CoV-2 in the emergency department: A multicenter experience from northern Italian hospitals. Respir Med. 170:1060362020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

142 

Li P, Chen L, Liu Z, Pan J, Zhou D, Wang H, Gong H, Fu Z, Song Q, Min Q, et al: Clinical features and short-term outcomes of elderly patients with COVID-19. Int J Infect Dis. 97:245–250. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

143 

Cui N, Zou X and Xu L: Preliminary CT findings of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Clin Imaging. 65:124–132. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

144 

Kovács A, Palásti P, Veréb D, Bozsik B, Palkó A and Kincses ZT: The sensitivity and specificity of chest CT in the diagnosis of COVID-19. Eur Radiol. 13:1–6. 2020.

145 

Zhao W, He L, Tang H, Xie X, Tang L and Liu J: The Relationship Between Chest Imaging Findings and the Viral Load of COVID-19. Front Med (Lausanne). 7:5585392020. View Article : Google Scholar

146 

Meng H, Xiong R, He R, Lin W, Hao B, Zhang L, Lu Z, Shen X, Fan T, Jiang W, et al: CT imaging and clinical course of asymptomatic cases with COVID-19 pneumonia at admission in Wuhan, China. J Infect. 81:e33–e39. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

147 

Mehrabi S, Fontana S, Mambrin F, Nguyen HQ, Righi E, Tacconelli E and Mansueto G: Pitfalls of computed tomography in the coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) era: a new perspective on ground-glass opacities. Cureus. 12:e81512020.PubMed/NCBI

148 

Tofighi S, Najafi S, Johnston SK and Gholamrezanezhad A: Low-dose CT in COVID-19 outbreak: Radiation safety, image wisely, and image gently pledge. Emerg Radiol. 27:601–605. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

149 

Qiu G, Gai Z, Tao Y, Schmitt J, Kullak-Ublick GA and Wang J: Dual-functional plasmonic photothermal biosensors for highly accurate severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 detection. ACS Nano. 14:5268–5277. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

150 

Pandey LM: Design of engineered surfaces for prospective detection of SARS-CoV-2 using quartz crystal micro-balance-based techniques. Expert Rev Proteomics. 17:425–432. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

151 

Maddali H, Miles CE, Kohn J and O'Carroll DM: Optical Biosensors for Virus Detection: Prospects for SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19. ChemBioChem. 22:1176–1189. 2021. View Article : Google Scholar

152 

Cui F and Zhou HS: Diagnostic methods and potential portable biosensors for coronavirus disease 2019. Biosens Bioelectron. 165:1123492020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

153 

Samson R, Navale GR and Dharne MS: Biosensors: frontiers in rapid detection of COVID-19. 3 Biotech. 10:3852020.

154 

Seo G, Lee G, Kim MJ, Baek SH, Choi M, Ku KB, Lee CS, Jun S, Park D, Kim HG, et al: Rapid detection of COVID-19 causative virus (SARS-CoV-2) in human nasopharyngeal swab specimens using field-effect transistor-based biosensor. ACS Nano. 14:5135–5142. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

155 

Zhao H, Liu F, Xie W, Zhou TC, OuYang J, Jin L, Li H, Zhao CY, Zhang L, Wei J, et al: Ultrasensitive supersandwich-type electrochemical sensor for SARS-CoV-2 from the infected COVID-19 patients using a smartphone. Sens Acuators B Chem. 327:1288992021. View Article : Google Scholar

156 

Choi JR: Development of point-of-care biosensors for COVID-19. Front Chem. 8:5172020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

157 

Lu R, Wu X, Wan Z, Li Y, Jin X and Zhang C: A novel reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification method for rapid detection of SARS-CoV-2. Int J Mol Sci. 21:28262020. View Article : Google Scholar :

158 

Yuan X, Yang C, He Q, Chen J, Yu D, Li J, Zhai S, Qin Z, Du K, Chu Z, et al: Current and perspective diagnostic techniques for COVID-19. ACS Infect Dis. 6:1998–2016. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

159 

Huang WE, Lim B, Hsu CC, Xiong D, Wu W, Yu Y, Jia H, Wang Y, Zeng Y, Ji M, et al: RT-LAMP for rapid diagnosis of coronavirus SARS-CoV-2. Microb Biotechnol. 13:950–961. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

160 

Broughton JP, Deng X, Yu G, Fasching CL, Servellita V, Singh J, Miao X, Streithorst JA, Granados A, Sotomayor-Gonzalez A, et al: CRISPR-Cas12-based detection of SARS-CoV-2. Nat Biotechnol. 38:870–874. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

161 

Song J, Liu C, Mauk MG, Rankin SC, Lok JB, Greenberg RM and Bau HH: Two-Stage Isothermal Enzymatic Amplification for Concurrent Multiplex Molecular Detection. Clin Chem. 63:714–722. 2017. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

162 

El-Tholoth M, Bau HH and Song J: A Single and Two-Stage, Closed-Tube, Molecular Test for the 2019 Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19) at Home, Clinic, and Points of Entry. ChemRxiv. View Article : Google Scholar

163 

Smithgall MC, Scherberkova I, Whittier S and Green DA: Comparison of Cepheid Xpert Xpress and Abbott ID Now to Roche cobas for the Rapid Detection of SARS-CoV-2. J Clin Virol. 128:1044282020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

164 

Rhoads DD, Cherian SS, Roman K, Stempak LM, Schmotzer CL and Sadri N: Comparison of Abbott ID Now, DiaSorin Simplexa, and CDC FDA Emergency Use Authorization Methods for the Detection of SARS-CoV-2 from Nasopharyngeal and Nasal Swabs from Individuals Diagnosed with COVID-19. J Clin Microbiol. 58:e00760–e20. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

165 

Basu A, Zinger T, Inglima K, Woo KM, Atie O, Yurasits L, See B and Aguero-Rosenfeld ME: Performance of Abbott ID Now COVID-19 Rapid Nucleic Acid Amplification Test Using Nasopharyngeal Swabs Transported in Viral Transport Media and Dry Nasal Swabs in a New York City Academic Institution. J Clin Microbiol. 58:e01136–e20. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

166 

Westermann L, Neubauer B and Köttgen M: Nobel Prize 2020 in Chemistry honors CRISPR: A tool for rewriting the code of life. Pflugers Arch. 473:1–2. 2021. View Article : Google Scholar :

167 

Doudna JA and Charpentier E: Genome editing. The new frontier of genome engineering with CRISPR-Cas9. Science. 346:12580962014. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

168 

Pickar-Oliver A and Gersbach CA: The next generation of CRISPR-Cas technologies and applications. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 20:490–507. 2019. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

169 

Broughton JP, Deng X, Yu G, Fasching CL, Singh J, Streithorst J, Granados A, Sotomayor-Gonzalez A, Zorn K, Gopez A, et al: Rapid detection of 2019 novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 using a CRISPR-based DETECTR lateral flow assay. medRxiv. https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.03.06.20032334.

170 

Javalkote VS, Kancharla N, Bhadra B, Shukla M, Soni B, Goodin M, Bandyopadhyay A and Dasgupta S: CRISPR-based assays for rapid detection of SARS-CoV-2. Methods. Oct 9–2020.Epub ahead of print. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

171 

van Dongen JE, Berendsen JTW, Steenbergen RDM, Wolthuis RMF, Eijkel JCT and Segerink LI: Point-of-care CRISPR/Cas nucleic acid detection: Recent advances, challenges and opportunities. Biosens Bioelectron. 166:1124452020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

172 

Kellner MJ, Koob JG, Gootenberg JS, Abudayyeh OO and Zhang F: SHERLOCK: Nucleic acid detection with CRISPR nucleases. Nat Protoc. 14:2986–3012. 2019. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

173 

Joung J, Ladha A, Saito M, Segel M, Bruneau R, Huang MW, Kim NG, Yu X, Li J, Walker BD, et al: Point-of-care testing for COVID-19 using SHERLOCK diagnostics. medRxiv. View Article : Google Scholar

174 

Food and Drug Administration (FDA): Sherlock™ CRISPR SARS-CoV-2 kit - Instructions for use. https://www.fda.gov/media/137746/download. Accessed February 2, 2021.

175 

Hou T, Zeng W, Yang M, Chen W, Ren L, Ai J, Wu J, Liao Y, Gou X, Li Y, et al: Development and evaluation of a rapid CRISPR-based diagnostic for COVID-19. PLoS Pathog. 16:e10087052020. View Article : Google Scholar

176 

Curti L, Pereyra-Bonnet F and Gimenez CA: An Ultrasensitive, Rapid, and Portable Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 Sequence Detection Method Based on CRISPR-Cas12. bioRxiv. https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.02.29.971127.

177 

Salipante SJ and Jerome KR: Digital PCR-An Emerging Technology with Broad Applications in Microbiology. Clin Chem. 66:117–123. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar

178 

Falzone L, Musso N, Gattuso G, Bongiorno D, Palermo CI, Scalia G, Libra M and Stefani S: Sensitivity assessment of droplet digital PCR for SARS-CoV-2 detection. Int J Mol Med. 46:957–964. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

179 

Falzone L, Gattuso G, Lombardo C, Lupo G, Grillo CM, Spandidos DA, Libra M and Salmeri M: Droplet digital PCR for the detection and monitoring of Legionella pneumophila. Int J Mol Med. 46:1777–1782. 2020.PubMed/NCBI

180 

Crimi S, Falzone L, Gattuso G, Grillo CM, Candido S, Bianchi A and Libra M: Droplet Digital PCR Analysis of Liquid Biopsy Samples Unveils the Diagnostic Role of hsa-miR-133a-3p and hsa-miR-375-3p in Oral Cancer. Biology (Basel). 9:3792020.

181 

Salemi R, Falzone L, Madonna G, Polesel J, Cinà D, Mallardo D, Ascierto PA, Libra M and Candido S: MMP-9 as a Candidate Marker of Response to BRAF Inhibitors in Melanoma Patients With BRAFV600E Mutation Detected in Circulating-Free DNA. Front Pharmacol. 9:8562018. View Article : Google Scholar :

182 

Battaglia R, Palini S, Vento ME, La Ferlita A, Lo Faro MJ, Caroppo E, Borzì P, Falzone L, Barbagallo D, Ragusa M, et al: Identification of extracellular vesicles and characterization of miRNA expression profiles in human blastocoel fluid. Sci Rep. 9:842019. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

183 

Bizouarn F: Clinical applications using digital PCR. Methods Mol Biol. 1160:189–214. 2014. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

184 

Olmedillas-López S, García-Arranz M and García-Olmo D: Current and Emerging Applications of Droplet Digital PCR in Oncology. Mol Diagn Ther. 21:493–510. 2017. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

185 

Denis JA, Nectoux J, Lamy PJ, Rouillac Le Sciellour C, Guermouche H, Alary AS, Kosmider O, Sarafan-Vasseur N, Jovelet C, Busser B, et al: Development of digital PCR molecular tests for clinical practice: Principles, practical implementation and recommendations. Ann Biol Clin (Paris). 76:505–523. 2018.

186 

Pinheiro LB, Coleman VA, Hindson CM, Herrmann J, Hindson BJ, Bhat S and Emslie KR: Evaluation of a droplet digital polymerase chain reaction format for DNA copy number quantification. Anal Chem. 84:1003–1011. 2012. View Article : Google Scholar :

187 

Alteri C, Cento V, Antonello M, Colagrossi L, Merli M, Ughi N, Renica S, Matarazzo E, Di Ruscio F, Tartaglione L, et al: Detection and quantification of SARS-CoV-2 by droplet digital PCR in real-time PCR negative nasopharyngeal swabs from suspected COVID-19 patients. PLoS One. 15:e02363112020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

188 

Suo T, Liu X, Feng J, Guo M, Hu W, Guo D, Ullah H, Yang Y, Zhang Q, Wang X, et al: ddPCR: A more accurate tool for SARS-CoV-2 detection in low viral load specimens. Emerg Microbes Infect. 9:1259–1268. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

189 

Liu C, Shi Q, Peng M, Lu R, Li H, Cai Y, Chen J, Xu J and Shen B: Evaluation of droplet digital PCR for quantification of SARS-CoV-2 Virus in discharged COVID-19 patients. Aging (any NY). 12:20997–21003. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar

190 

Vasudevan HN, Xu P, Servellita V, Miller S, Liu L, Gopez A, Chiu CY and Abate AR: Digital droplet PCR accurately quantifies SARS-CoV-2 viral load from crude lysate without nucleic acid purification. Sci Rep. 11:7802021. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI

Related Articles

  • Abstract
  • View
  • Download
  • Twitter
Copy and paste a formatted citation
Spandidos Publications style
Falzone L, Gattuso G, Tsatsakis A, Spandidos DA and Libra M: Current and innovative methods for the diagnosis of COVID‑19 infection (Review). Int J Mol Med 47: 100, 2021.
APA
Falzone, L., Gattuso, G., Tsatsakis, A., Spandidos, D.A., & Libra, M. (2021). Current and innovative methods for the diagnosis of COVID‑19 infection (Review). International Journal of Molecular Medicine, 47, 100. https://doi.org/10.3892/ijmm.2021.4933
MLA
Falzone, L., Gattuso, G., Tsatsakis, A., Spandidos, D. A., Libra, M."Current and innovative methods for the diagnosis of COVID‑19 infection (Review)". International Journal of Molecular Medicine 47.6 (2021): 100.
Chicago
Falzone, L., Gattuso, G., Tsatsakis, A., Spandidos, D. A., Libra, M."Current and innovative methods for the diagnosis of COVID‑19 infection (Review)". International Journal of Molecular Medicine 47, no. 6 (2021): 100. https://doi.org/10.3892/ijmm.2021.4933
Copy and paste a formatted citation
x
Spandidos Publications style
Falzone L, Gattuso G, Tsatsakis A, Spandidos DA and Libra M: Current and innovative methods for the diagnosis of COVID‑19 infection (Review). Int J Mol Med 47: 100, 2021.
APA
Falzone, L., Gattuso, G., Tsatsakis, A., Spandidos, D.A., & Libra, M. (2021). Current and innovative methods for the diagnosis of COVID‑19 infection (Review). International Journal of Molecular Medicine, 47, 100. https://doi.org/10.3892/ijmm.2021.4933
MLA
Falzone, L., Gattuso, G., Tsatsakis, A., Spandidos, D. A., Libra, M."Current and innovative methods for the diagnosis of COVID‑19 infection (Review)". International Journal of Molecular Medicine 47.6 (2021): 100.
Chicago
Falzone, L., Gattuso, G., Tsatsakis, A., Spandidos, D. A., Libra, M."Current and innovative methods for the diagnosis of COVID‑19 infection (Review)". International Journal of Molecular Medicine 47, no. 6 (2021): 100. https://doi.org/10.3892/ijmm.2021.4933
Follow us
  • Twitter
  • LinkedIn
  • Facebook
About
  • Spandidos Publications
  • Careers
  • Cookie Policy
  • Privacy Policy
How can we help?
  • Help
  • Live Chat
  • Contact
  • Email to our Support Team