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Ginkgolide C alleviates atherosclerosis via activating Nrf2 to inhibit ROS‑dependent NLRP3 inflammasome activation

  • Authors:
    • Rui Zhang
  • View Affiliations / Copyright

    Affiliations: Department of Pharmacy, Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong First Medical University, Jinan, Shandong 250021, P.R. China
    Copyright: © Zhang et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of Creative Commons Attribution License.
  • Article Number: 75
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    Published online on: January 27, 2026
       https://doi.org/10.3892/ijmm.2026.5746
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Abstract

Atherosclerosis (AS), a chronic vascular pathology characterized by endothelial dysfunction, arises from the interplay of lipid dysregulation, oxidative stress, and inflammatory activation. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) overproduction triggers Nod‑like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome signaling, exacerbating inflammatory cascades that drive plaque progression. The nuclear factor erythroid 2‑related factor 2 (Nrf2)‑mediated antioxidant pathway serves as a critical counterbalance to ROS/NLRP3 axis dysregulation, positioning pharmacological Nrf2 activation as a promising therapeutic strategy. The present study investigated the anti‑atherosclerotic potential of ginkgolide C (GC), a terpene lactone from Ginkgo biloba with established anti‑inflammatory and anti‑ischemia/reperfusion injury properties, through coordinated modulation of redox‑inflammatory pathways. Complementary in vivo (high‑fat diet/vitamin D3‑treated ApoE-/- mice) and in vitro (oxidized‑low density lipoprotein‑stimulated aortic endothelial cells) models were established. Comprehensive analyses included histopathological characterization, lipid profiling, ultrastructural examination, redox‑inflammatory biomarker quantification, and molecular pathway validation. GC significantly attenuated hyperlipidemia and plaque progression while preserving vascular ultrastructure. Mechanistically, GC enhanced endothelial survival through dual pathway modulation: i) Nrf2 nuclear translocation upregulated antioxidant enzymes [heme oxygenase‑1/NAD(P)H quinone oxidoreductase 1/glutamate‑cysteine ligase modifier subunit], restoring redox homeostasis; ii) NLRP3 inflammasome inhibition via Caspase‑1 suppression mitigated inflammatory cytokine release. The present study demonstrated GC's dual‑target therapeutic efficacy against AS through Nrf2‑mediated oxidative stress resolution and NLRP3 inflammasome inactivation, offering new insights into phytochemical‑based cardiovascular interventions.
View Figures

Figure 1

Chemical structure of ginkgolide
C.

Figure 2

Effect of GC on histopathology of the
aortic root via H&E staining in atherosclerosis model mice.
Light microscopy images (magnification, ×40) of aortic roots
stained with H&E. (A) Control group, (B) model group, (C) 2.5
mg/kg AVT group, (D) 12 mg/kg GC group, (E) 24 mg/kg GC group and
(F) 48 mg/kg GC group. (G) Quantitative analysis of atherosclerotic
plaque area based on H&E staining. Data are expressed as the
mean ± SD. ##P<0.01 vs. control group;
**P<0.01 vs. model group. GC, ginkgolide C; AVT,
atorvastatin.

Figure 3

Effect of GC on lipid deposition of
the aortic root via oil red O staining in atherosclerosis model
mice. Light microscopy images (magnification, ×40) of aortic roots
stained with oil red O. (A) Control group, (B) model group, (C) 2.5
mg/kg AVT group, (D) 12 mg/kg GC group, (E) 24 mg/kg GC group and
(F) 48 mg/kg GC group. (G) Quantitative analysis of atherosclerotic
plaque area based on oil red O staining. Data are expressed as the
mean ± SD. ##P<0.01 vs. control group;
**P<0.01 vs. model group. GC, ginkgolide C; AVT,
atorvastatin.

Figure 4

Transmission electron microscopy for
ultrastructural changes in atherosclerosis model mice. (A) Control
group, (B) model group, (C) 2.5 mg/kg AVT group, (D) 12 mg/kg GC
group, (E) 24 mg/kg GC group and (F) 48 mg/kg GC group. AVT,
atorvastatin; GC, ginkgolide C.

Figure 5

Effect of GC on Nrf2, HO-1, NQO1 and
GCLM expression levels in atherosclerosis model mice. (A)
Immunofluorescence staining was performed for measurement of Nrf2.
(B) Quantitative analysis of Nrf2. (C-E) Western blot was applied
to quantify the expression levels of (C) HO-1, (D) NQO1 and (E)
GCLM. Results are expressed as protein/reference protein ratio.
Data were expressed as the mean ± SD. ##P<0.01 vs.
control group; **P<0.01 vs. model group. GC,
ginkgolide C; Nrf2, nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2;
HO-1, heme oxygenase-1; NQO1, NAD(P)H quinone oxidoreductase 1;
GCLM, glutamate-cysteine ligase modifier subunit.

Figure 6

Effect of GC on NLRP3 and Caspase-1
expression levels in atherosclerosis model mice. (A)
Immunofluorescence staining was performed for measurement of NLRP3.
(B) Quantitative analysis of NLRP3. (C) Western blot was applied to
quantify the expression of Caspase-1. Results were expressed as
protein/reference protein ratio. Data are expressed as the mean ±
SD. ##P<0.01 vs. control group;
**P<0.01 vs. model group. GC, ginkgolide C; NLRP3,
Nod-like receptor protein 3.

Figure 7

Effect of GC on cell viability, ROS
production and cell apoptosis in oxidized-low density lipoprotein
stimulated mouse aortic endothelial cells. (A) MTT assay was
performed for measurement of cell viability. (B) ROS determination
regent was used to quantify the level of ROS. (C) TUNEL staining
was applied to evaluate the situation of cell apoptosis. Data are
expressed as the mean ± SD. ##P<0.01 vs. control
group; **P<0.01 vs. model group. GC, ginkgolide C;
ROS, reactive oxygen species.

Figure 8

Effect of GC on expression levels of
Nrf2, HO-1, NQO1, GCLM, NLRP3 and Caspase-1 in oxidized-low density
lipoprotein stimulated mouse aortic endothelial cells. (A-G)
Western blot was applied to quantify the expression levels of (A)
cytoplasmic Nrf2, (B) nuclear Nrf2, (C) HO-1, (D) NQO1, (E) GCLM,
(F) NLRP3 and (G) Caspase-1. Results were expressed as
protein/reference protein ratio. Data are expressed as the mean ±
SD. ##P<0.01 vs. control group;
**P<0.01 vs. model group. GC, ginkgolide C; Nrf2,
nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2; HO-1, heme
oxygenase-1; NQO1, NAD(P)H quinone oxidoreductase 1; GCLM,
glutamate-cysteine ligase modifier subunit; NLRP3, Nod-like
receptor protein 3.

Figure 9

Elucidation of ginkgolide C-mediated
inhibitory mechanisms in atherosclerosis pathogenesis. ROS,
reactive oxygen species; NLRP3, Nod-like receptor protein 3; IL,
interleukin; TNF, tumor necrosis factor.
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Copy and paste a formatted citation
Spandidos Publications style
Zhang R: Ginkgolide C alleviates atherosclerosis via activating Nrf2 to inhibit ROS‑dependent NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Int J Mol Med 57: 75, 2026.
APA
Zhang, R. (2026). Ginkgolide C alleviates atherosclerosis via activating Nrf2 to inhibit ROS‑dependent NLRP3 inflammasome activation. International Journal of Molecular Medicine, 57, 75. https://doi.org/10.3892/ijmm.2026.5746
MLA
Zhang, R."Ginkgolide C alleviates atherosclerosis via activating Nrf2 to inhibit ROS‑dependent NLRP3 inflammasome activation". International Journal of Molecular Medicine 57.3 (2026): 75.
Chicago
Zhang, R."Ginkgolide C alleviates atherosclerosis via activating Nrf2 to inhibit ROS‑dependent NLRP3 inflammasome activation". International Journal of Molecular Medicine 57, no. 3 (2026): 75. https://doi.org/10.3892/ijmm.2026.5746
Copy and paste a formatted citation
x
Spandidos Publications style
Zhang R: Ginkgolide C alleviates atherosclerosis via activating Nrf2 to inhibit ROS‑dependent NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Int J Mol Med 57: 75, 2026.
APA
Zhang, R. (2026). Ginkgolide C alleviates atherosclerosis via activating Nrf2 to inhibit ROS‑dependent NLRP3 inflammasome activation. International Journal of Molecular Medicine, 57, 75. https://doi.org/10.3892/ijmm.2026.5746
MLA
Zhang, R."Ginkgolide C alleviates atherosclerosis via activating Nrf2 to inhibit ROS‑dependent NLRP3 inflammasome activation". International Journal of Molecular Medicine 57.3 (2026): 75.
Chicago
Zhang, R."Ginkgolide C alleviates atherosclerosis via activating Nrf2 to inhibit ROS‑dependent NLRP3 inflammasome activation". International Journal of Molecular Medicine 57, no. 3 (2026): 75. https://doi.org/10.3892/ijmm.2026.5746
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