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Metabolic hubs in reproduction: The regulatory network of lipid droplets in gamete and embryo physiology (Review)

  • Authors:
    • Liuzhu Pan
    • Zongzhuang Wen
    • Yi Jin
  • View Affiliations / Copyright

    Affiliations: Metabolism and Disease Research Centre, Research Center of Basic Medicine, Central Hospital Affiliated to Shandong First Medical University, Jinan, Shandong 250013, P.R. China, Metabolism and Disease Research Centre, Research Center of Basic Medicine, Central Hospital Affiliated to Shandong First Medical University, Jinan, Shandong 250013, P.R. China
    Copyright: © Pan et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of Creative Commons Attribution License.
  • Article Number: 99
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    Published online on: February 17, 2026
       https://doi.org/10.3892/ijmm.2026.5770
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Abstract

Lipid droplets (LDs) are dynamic organelles that extend beyond lipid storage to regulate diverse aspects of reproductive physiology. In both mammals and Caenorhabditis elegans, LDs support gamete maturation, fertilization, embryogenesis and steroidogenesis by modulating lipid mobilization, signaling pathways, protein quality control and hormone production. The present review highlights the roles of LDs in oocytes, sperm, Sertoli and granulosa cells, embryonic stem cells and early embryos. Key regulatory molecules, including perilipins, adipose triglyceride lipase, Hormone‑Sensitive Lipase (HSL), Diacylglycerol O‑acyltransferases and seipin, as well as lipophagy, are discussed in the context of reproductive cell function. C. elegans demonstrates conserved genetic pathways linking LD metabolism with gamete quality and embryonic viability. The present review aimed to discuss emerging technologies such as lipidomics, high‑resolution imaging, Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats screening and single‑cell sequencing that enable deeper investigation into LD dynamics. Finally, the present review aimed to examine how LD dysfunction contributes to reproductive disorders including infertility, polycystic ovary syndrome and metabolic syndrome. Understanding LD biology offers promising avenues for improving reproductive health and gamete and embryonic developmental potential.
View Figures

Figure 1

Roles of LDs as metabolic and
regulatory hubs in reproductive cells. (A) LDs are energy reservoir
for development. LDs store TAGs that are mobilized via lipolysis to
provide fatty acids for mitochondrial β-oxidation. This generates
ATP, which is key for oocyte maturation, fertilization and early
cleavage, while maintaining a balanced redox state (low ROS), which
is critical for embryo viability. (B) LDs are regulators of
signaling and cell fate. LDs release bioactive lipids (such as
PUFAs) that act as signaling ligands for nuclear receptors (such as
PPARs) to drive gene transcription and differentiation. LD-derived
lipids contribute to membrane remodeling, influencing fluidity and
morphogenetic events during cell division. (C) LDs are guardians of
proteostasis (cell quality control). LDs function as sequestration
sites for misfolded or aggregated proteins, acting as transient
detoxification zones. These protein-laden LDs are cleared via
lipophagy (autophagic degradation) or lysosomal pathways, which is
key for maintaining proteostasis during high-stress periods such as
spermatogenesis. (D) LDs are platforms for steroid hormone
biosynthesis. In steroidogenic cells (Leydig, granulosa and luteal
cells), LDs store cholesteryl esters. Following hormonal
stimulation, these esters are hydrolyzed to free cholesterol, which
is transported to mitochondria (facilitated by proteins such as
StAR and HSL at the LD-mitochondria interface) to serve as the
substrate for the synthesis of steroid hormones such as
progesterone and testosterone. HSL, hormone-sensitive lipase; LD,
lipid droplet; PPAR, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor;
PUFA, polyunsaturated fatty acid; ROS, reactive oxygen species;
StAR, steroidogenic acute regulatory protein; TAG,
triacylglycerol.

Figure 2

LD dynamics and regulation during
oocyte maturation. (A) COC (the follicular microenvironment). The
oocyte is surrounded by cumulus cells, forming the COC. Cumulus
cells modulate the oocyte lipid profile by transferring FAs and
sterols through gap junctions. This supply chain is influenced by
external factors such as gonadotropins and dietary intake
(exogenous FAs). Cumulus cells maintain their own LD reserves to
support this metabolic coupling. (B) LDs show intracellular
dynamics across temporal phases. During the GV stage, the oocyte
actively synthesizes and stores lipids. DGAT2 catalyzes
triacylglycerol synthesis and PLIN2 facilitates coating of the LD
surface to promote stability and prevent premature lipolysis,
resulting in the accumulation of dispersed LDs. Following meiotic
resumption (MII transition), LDs undergo spatial reorganization and
functional activation. At mitochondria-LD contact sites, lipolytic
enzymes (ATGL/HSL) mobilize stored lipids. The released FAs are
directed into mitochondria for β-oxidation, generating ATP while
maintaining redox balance (low ROS) and supporting membrane
synthesis essential for meiotic progression and fertilization
competence. COC, cumulus-oocyte complex; DGAT2, diacylglycerol
acyltransferase 2; ER, endoplasmic reticulum; GV, germinal vesicle;
HSL, hormone-sensitive lipase; MII, metaphase II; PLIN2, perilipin
2; ROS, reactive oxygen species; FA, fatty acid; LD, lipid droplet;
ATGL, adipose triglyceride lipase.

Figure 3

LD dynamics and metabolic crosstalk
in the testis. (A) Sertoli cells support germ cells via a metabolic
axis. Within the seminiferous tubule, Sertoli cells support the
developing germ cells. As spermatids elongate, they shed excess
cytoplasm as residual bodies, which are phagocytosed by Sertoli
cells. These lipid-rich remnants are sequestered into LDs
(phagocytosis and lipid recycling). Stored LDs in Sertoli cells are
catabolized via lipophagy (lysosomal degradation) and mitochondrial
β-oxidation to generate ATP, fueling the high energy demands of
spermatogenesis. Early germ cells (spermatogonia/cytes) contain
transient LDs as energy reserves, which decline as cells
differentiate into mature spermatozoa. (B) Sperm undergo membrane
remodeling. Although mature spermatozoa lack LDs, their plasma
membranes are enriched with PUFAs derived from upstream lipid
metabolism. Integration of PUFAs into the sperm membrane is a
critical factor for maintaining membrane fluidity, motility and
fertilization capacity. FSH, follicle-stimulating hormone; HSL,
hormone-sensitive lipase; LD, lipid droplet; PUFA, polyunsaturated
fatty acid. (C) Leydig cells regulate interstitial processes. In
the interstitial space, Leydig cells use LDs as reservoirs for
cholesteryl esters. Under the regulation of LH, HSL mobilizes
cholesterol from these LDs to synthesize Testosterone, which is key
for maintaining spermatogenesis.

Figure 4

Comparative functions of LDs in
reproductive support cells. (A) In the seminiferous epithelium,
Sertoli cells support spermatogenesis through a recycling
mechanism. Sertoli cells engulf residual bodies (cytoplasmic
remnants) and apoptotic germ cells via phagocytosis. These
internalized materials are processed in lysosomes and their lipid
content is recycled into LDs. Stored lipids are subsequently
mobilized via lipophagy (autophagic degradation) and mitochondrial
β-oxidation to generate ATP, providing the energy required for
Sertoli cell metabolism and germ cell support. This process is
regulated by FSH, which stimulates lipid uptake and storage gene
expression. (B) In the ovarian follicle, granulosa cells use LDs
primarily as substrate reservoirs for hormone synthesis. Upon
stimulation by gonadotropins (LH/FSH), HSL hydrolyzes stored
cholesteryl esters into free cholesterol. Cholesterol is
transported to mitochondria via the StAR protein at LD-mitochondria
contact sites. Inside the mitochondria, CYP11A1 initiates the
conversion of cholesterol into steroid hormones
(progesterone/estrogen). Granulosa cells also metabolically support
the oocyte by transferring pyruvate and lipid intermediates through
gap junctions, a process associated with the metabolic status of
their own LDs. CYP11A1, cytochrome P450 family 11 subfamily A
member 1; FSH, follicle-stimulating hormone; HSL, hormone-sensitive
lipase; LD, lipid droplet; LH, luteinizing hormone; StAR,
steroidogenic acute regulatory protein; FA, fatty acid.

Figure 5

Spatiotemporal dynamics and
functional roles of LDs during preimplantation development. (A)
Developmental timeline (zygote to blastocyst). Following
fertilization, the zygote inherits a pool of maternal LDs. During
early cleavage divisions, LDs undergo dynamic clustering (typically
perinuclear) and partial lipolysis. They interact with mitochondria
to provide fatty acids for β-oxidation, fueling the
energy-intensive process of rapid cell division. At the blastocyst
stage, LDs exhibit asymmetric distribution. TE cells (outer layer)
contain larger and more numerous LDs, supporting their high lipid
metabolic needs for implantation and steroidogenesis. By contrast,
the ICM (inner cluster) contains fewer LDs, consistent with a
glycolytic, pluripotent metabolic state. (B) Functional mechanisms.
LDs act as detoxification sinks by sequestering toxic saturated
fatty acids and peroxidized lipids, thereby protecting the embryo
from lipotoxicity and oxidative stress (ROS) when antioxidant
defenses are developing. In pluripotent cells, LD-derived
acetyl-CoA enters the nucleus to serve as a substrate for histone
acetylation. This metabolic-epigenetic link influences chromatin
structure and gene expression, thereby regulating the maintenance
of pluripotency and stem cell fate decisions. ICM, inner cell mass;
LD, lipid droplet; ROS, reactive oxygen species; TE, trophectoderm;
CPT, carnitine palmitoyltransferase.

Figure 6

Molecular landscape of LD regulation
in reproductive cells. Integrated network of enzymes, structural
proteins and signaling pathways orchestrate LD biology, ensuring
the balance between lipid storage and utilization. LD formation
originates at the ER. DGAT1/2 catalyze the synthesis of TAGs, while
ACATs synthesize CEs. These neutral lipids are packaged into the
nascent LD core, establishing the metabolic reserves required for
gametogenesis and steroidogenesis. The LD surface is coated by PLIN
family proteins. PLIN2 stabilizes the LD by preventing uncontrolled
lipolysis (crucial for oocyte lipid retention), while PLIN3
supports cholesterol storage in steroidogenic cells. These proteins
serve as gatekeepers, regulating access to the lipid core.
Controlled lipid breakdown is mediated by lipases. ATGL initiates
TAG hydrolysis to release fatty acids for mitochondrial
β-oxidation. HSL, activated via phosphorylation, hydrolyzes TAGs
and CEs, liberating cholesterol for steroid hormone synthesis. The
entire system is governed by upstream regulators. Hormones such as
FSH promote lipid uptake/storage, whereas LH triggers lipolysis by
activating HSL. At the nuclear level, transcription factors SREBP
and PPAR modulate the expression of lipogenic and oxidative genes,
respectively, adapting cell metabolism to developmental demands.
ACAT, acyl-CoA cholesterol acyltransferase; ATGL, adipose
triglyceride lipase; DGAT, diacylglycerol acyltransferase; ER,
endoplasmic reticulum; FSH, follicle-stimulating hormone; HSL,
hormone-sensitive lipase; LH, luteinizing hormone; PLIN, perilipin;
PPAR, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor; SREBP, sterol
regulatory element-binding protein; LD, lipid droplet; TAG,
triacylglycerol; CPT, carnitine palmitoyltransferase; CE,
cholesteryl Ester.

Figure 7

LD dysfunction as a driver of
reproductive pathology. (A) Obesity causes lipid overload in
granulosa cells and oocytes. Under conditions of obesity or dietary
excess, high levels of free fatty acids cause lipid overload in
granulosa cells and oocytes. This leads to mitochondrial
dysfunction and the generation of ROS. The resulting metabolic
stress impairs steroidogenic signaling and disrupts follicle
development, culminating in follicular arrest and phenotypes
associated with PCOS. (B) Toxicants disrupt LD homeostasis in the
testis. Exposure to environmental toxicants (BPA, phthalates)
disrupts LD homeostasis in the testis. In Sertoli cells, toxicants
block lysosomal/autophagic pathways, preventing the clearance of
phagocytosed lipids. This leads to the accumulation of phagocytic
LDs and impairs the nutritional support provided to germ cells. In
Leydig cells, disruption of lipolysis (HSL inhibition) prevents
cholesterol mobilization, resulting in decreased testosterone
synthesis (hypogonadism) and germ cell apoptosis. (C) Lipotoxicity
leads to developmental arrest in embryos. In the context of IVF or
maternal metabolic disorder, embryos may exhibit uneven
distribution of LDs. The accumulation of peroxidized lipids creates
a state of lipotoxicity and oxidative stress. These cell insults
compromise blastocyst quality, leading to developmental arrest,
decreased viability and implantation failure. BPA, bisphenol A;
HSL, hormone-sensitive lipase; IVF, in vitro fertilization;
LD, lipid droplet; PCOS, polycystic ovary syndrome; ROS, reactive
oxygen species.
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Spandidos Publications style
Pan L, Wen Z and Jin Y: Metabolic hubs in reproduction: The regulatory network of lipid droplets in gamete and embryo physiology (Review). Int J Mol Med 57: 99, 2026.
APA
Pan, L., Wen, Z., & Jin, Y. (2026). Metabolic hubs in reproduction: The regulatory network of lipid droplets in gamete and embryo physiology (Review). International Journal of Molecular Medicine, 57, 99. https://doi.org/10.3892/ijmm.2026.5770
MLA
Pan, L., Wen, Z., Jin, Y."Metabolic hubs in reproduction: The regulatory network of lipid droplets in gamete and embryo physiology (Review)". International Journal of Molecular Medicine 57.4 (2026): 99.
Chicago
Pan, L., Wen, Z., Jin, Y."Metabolic hubs in reproduction: The regulatory network of lipid droplets in gamete and embryo physiology (Review)". International Journal of Molecular Medicine 57, no. 4 (2026): 99. https://doi.org/10.3892/ijmm.2026.5770
Copy and paste a formatted citation
x
Spandidos Publications style
Pan L, Wen Z and Jin Y: Metabolic hubs in reproduction: The regulatory network of lipid droplets in gamete and embryo physiology (Review). Int J Mol Med 57: 99, 2026.
APA
Pan, L., Wen, Z., & Jin, Y. (2026). Metabolic hubs in reproduction: The regulatory network of lipid droplets in gamete and embryo physiology (Review). International Journal of Molecular Medicine, 57, 99. https://doi.org/10.3892/ijmm.2026.5770
MLA
Pan, L., Wen, Z., Jin, Y."Metabolic hubs in reproduction: The regulatory network of lipid droplets in gamete and embryo physiology (Review)". International Journal of Molecular Medicine 57.4 (2026): 99.
Chicago
Pan, L., Wen, Z., Jin, Y."Metabolic hubs in reproduction: The regulatory network of lipid droplets in gamete and embryo physiology (Review)". International Journal of Molecular Medicine 57, no. 4 (2026): 99. https://doi.org/10.3892/ijmm.2026.5770
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