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Neutrophil extracellular traps in cardiovascular disease: Mechanisms and therapeutic implications (Review)

  • Authors:
    • Zhao Wang
    • Mingde Chang
    • Wenyu Shang
    • Yunfeng Jia
    • Xiaoyu Shan
    • Xinnong Chen
    • Yingxi Yang
    • Junping Zhang
  • View Affiliations / Copyright

    Affiliations: Department of Cardiology, First Teaching Hospital of Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin 300381, P.R. China, College of Clinical Medical, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, Sichuan 610075, P.R. China, College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin 301617, P.R. China, Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin First Central Hospital, Tianjin 300190, P.R. China
    Copyright: © Wang et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of Creative Commons Attribution License.
  • Article Number: 323
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    Published online on: September 18, 2026
       https://doi.org/10.3892/ijmm.2026.5994
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Abstract

Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) are web‑like structures composed of decondensed chromatin and granular proteins. Initially identified as an antimicrobial defense mechanism, NETs have now been demonstrated to be profoundly involved in the processes of sterile inflammation, thrombosis and fibrosis in cardiovascular diseases. The present review systematically delineated the interaction networks between NETs and macrophages, monocytes, endothelial cells, fibroblasts and platelets, untangling NETs as a central hub that integrates the pathological triad of inflammation, thrombosis and fibrosis. Building on this foundation, the specific mechanisms of NETs in cardiac diseases, including acute myocardial infarction, atrial fibrillation and heart failure and in vascular diseases, such as atherosclerosis, hypertension and abdominal aortic aneurysm, are elaborated. Finally, from four dimensions, NETs degradation, targeting of NETs components, inhibition of NETosis formation and indirect intervention through inflammatory metabolic pathways, the preclinical evidence and translational bottlenecks of strategies such as DNase I, histone‑neutralizing agents and PAD4 inhibitors were systematically evaluated. The present review aimed to promote the transition of NETs from a fundamental pathological hub into a targetable node for cardiovascular therapy.
View Figures

Figure 1

The two major pathways of neutrophil
extracellular trap formation. i) Suicidal NETosis: High
concentrations of LPS, PMA, pathogens and inflammatory mediators
stimulate TLRs, Fcγ and complement receptors on the cell membrane,
triggering endoplasmic reticulum calcium release and extracellular
Ca2+ influx through store-operated calcium channels.
This activates PKC, which subsequently phosphorylates the NOX
complex via the Raf/MEK/ERK pathway, resulting in the generation of
large amounts of membrane-derived ROS. Elevated intracellular
calcium activates PAD4, which catalyzes histone arginine
citrullination and initiates chromatin decondensation.
Concurrently, NOX-derived ROS induce degranulation of azurophilic
granules, releasing MPO and NE. NE cleaves histones, while MPO
synergistically amplifies oxidative signaling, completing full
chromatin decondensation. Downstream calcium signaling and ROS
activate GSDMD, which forms pores in the plasma membrane. The
nuclear envelope disintegrates, decondensed chromatin mixes with
granular proteins and the cell ultimately lyses, releasing NETs.
ii) Vital NETosis: Upon stimulation with A23187, low concentrations
of C5a, Staphylococcus aureus, or low-dose LPS presented by
activated platelets, rapid extracellular Ca2+ influx
directly activates PAD4, driving nuclear chromatin decondensation.
The nuclear envelope buds to form vesicles that release nuclear
DNA-derived vital NETs via exocytosis. Alternatively, under
stimulation with GM-CSF and low-dose LPS, calcium signaling induces
opening of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore,
generating mtROS and releasing mtDNA. After oxidative modification,
mtDNA associates with granular proteins such as MPO and NE and is
released as mtDNA-type NETs through vesicle secretion or fusion of
mitochondria with the plasma membrane. NETs, neutrophil
extracellular traps; LPS, lipopolysaccharide; PMA, phorbol
12-myristate 13-acetate; TLRs, Toll-like receptors; TNF, tumor
necrosis factor; IL, interleukin; PKC, protein kinase C; PAD4,
peptidylarginine deiminase 4; NOX, NADPH oxidase; Raf, rapidly
accelerated fibrosarcoma; MEK, mitogen-activated protein kinase
kinase; ERK, extracellular signal-regulated kinase; ROS, reactive
oxygen species; MPO, myeloperoxidase; NE, neutrophil elastase;
GSDMD, gasdermin D; mtROS, mitochondrial ROS; GM-CSF,
granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor; mtDNA,
mitochondrial DNA. Image created with Figdraw.com,
with permission.

Figure 2

Mechanisms by which NETs establish
and amplify the inflammatory microenvironment at sites of
cardiovascular injury. NETs form a multicellular pro-inflammatory
network through interactions with macrophages, monocytes and
endothelial cells. i) NETs drive pro-inflammatory macrophage
polarization via the TLR9/NF-κB and NE/Rab5a-NF-κB pathways and
establish inflammatory amplification loops through IL-1β/IL-17 and
IL-8/CXCR2. M1 macrophages, in turn, induce NETosis through the
ARID3A/THBS1/CD47/p38 MAPK axis, creating a bidirectional
positive-feedback loop. ii) NETs upregulate endothelial MCP-1,
which promotes monocyte chemotaxis and maintains their
pro-inflammatory phenotype; MCP-1 reciprocally enhances NET
release, establishing a NETs-MCP-1 loop (3). NETs carry IL-1α and activate
endothelial cells via the TLR4/NF-κB and cGAS-STING pathways,
upregulating adhesion molecules and releasing pro-inflammatory
cytokines, thereby collectively amplifying local inflammation.
NETs, neutrophil extracellular traps; TLR, Toll-like receptor; IL,
interleukin; CXCL, C-X-C motif chemokine ligand; CXCR, C-X-C motif
chemokine receptor; ARID3A, AT-rich interaction domain 3A; THBS1,
thrombospondin 1; CD47, cluster of differentiation 47; p38 MAPK,
p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase; NE, neutrophil elastase;
NF-κB, nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B
cells; EGFR, epidermal growth factor receptor; TNF, tumor necrosis
factor; MPO, myeloperoxidase; CCR, C-C chemokine receptor; ER,
endoplasmic reticulum; TBK1, TANK-binding kinase 1; IRF3,
interferon regulatory factor 3; VCAM, vascular cell adhesion
molecule; ICAM, intercellular adhesion molecule; MCP, monocyte
chemoattractant protein; cGAMP, cyclic GMP-AMP; cGAS-STING, cyclic
GMP-AMP synthase-stimulator of interferon genes. Image created with
Figdraw.com, with permission.

Figure 3

Mechanisms by which NETs drive the
progression of heart failure. i) Upstream initiation: Ang II
downregulates KLF2, thereby relieving the suppression of HIF1α;
myocardial injury releases HMGB1; an imbalance in vWF/ADAMTS13
activates NETosis via SLC44A2; and downregulation of DEL-1 relieves
the inhibition of p38 signaling. Together, these pathways induce
NET formation. ii) Downstream effects: The NET component NE
inhibits PGC-1α through the TLR4-p38 pathway, impairing
mitochondrial biogenesis and function in cardiomyocytes and leading
to myocardial apoptosis. NETs also serve as a procoagulant
scaffold, triggering microvascular immunothrombosis and causing
microcirculatory disturbance. Meanwhile, they promote macrophage
infiltration, aggravating cardiac inflammation (3). Positive-feedback loop:
Mitochondrial damage leads to cardiomyocyte apoptosis and the
release of DAMPs, while microthrombosis exacerbates ischemia. These
events, in turn, reactivate the upstream NETosis pathways,
establishing a self-sustaining pro-inflammatory cycle that drives
the self-perpetuation and deterioration of heart failure. NETs,
neutrophil extracellular traps; Ang II, angiotensin II; KLF2,
Krüppel-like factor 2; HIF1α, hypoxia-inducible factor 1-alpha;
ADAMTS13, a disintegrin and metalloproteinase with thrombospondin
type 1 motif, member 13; SLC44A2, solute carrier family 44 member
2; DEL-1, developmental endothelial locus-1; HMGB1, high-mobility
group box 1;vWF, von Willebrand factor; NE, neutrophil elastase;
PGC-1α; TLR, Toll-like receptor. Image created with Figdraw.com, with permission.

Figure 4

The 'trigger-clearance-effector'
mechanism by which NETs drive the progression of atherosclerosis.
i) Trigger: Low shear stress downregulates Piezo1 and upregulates
HDAC2, thereby promoting NOX-dependent ROS generation; oxLDL
induces NETosis via exosomal miR-146a/miR-505 and the CFTR/SGK1
pathway; and aging-related mitochondrial oxidative stress further
enhances NET release. ii) Clearance: Hypercholesterolemia,
endoplasmic reticulum stress (PERK-ATF4) in plaque macrophages and
diabetes synergistically suppress DNase I/DNase1L3-mediated NET
degradation, resulting in persistent NET accumulation within
plaques. iii) Effector: NETs enhance macrophage oxLDL uptake and
MMP-9 expression, impair efferocytosis through
HMGB1/TLR4/ADAM17-mediated MerTK cleavage and expand the necrotic
core; NE cleaves TLR4 to drive VSMC proliferation and migration;
histone H2A captures monocytes; and CitH3 activates the NLRP3
inflammasome, collectively exacerbating plaque inflammation and
instability. NETs, neutrophil extracellular traps; HDAC2, histone
deacetylase 2; NOX, NADPH oxidase; ROS, reactive oxygen species;
ox-LDL, oxidized low-density lipoprotein; miR. micro RNA; CFTR,
cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator; SGK1, serum
and glucocorticoid inducible protein kinase 1; MMP, matrix
metalloproteinase; HMGB1, high-mobility group box 1; TLR, Toll-like
receptor; NE, neutrophil elastase; CitH3, citrullinated histone H3;
LSS, low shear stress; DNase, deoxyribonuclease; ER, endoplasmic
reticulum; VSMC, vascular smooth muscle cell; SOD2, histone
deacetylase 2; SIRT3, sirtuin 3; PERK, protein kinase RNA-like
endoplasmic reticulum kinase; ATF4, activating transcription factor
4; ADAM17, a disintegrin and metalloproteinase domain-containing
protein 17; NLRP3, NLR family pyrin domain containing 3; IL,
interleukin; MyD88, myeloid differentiation primary response 88;
IRAK1, interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinase 1; TRAF6, TNF
receptor-associated factor 6; NF-κB, nuclear factor
kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells. Image created with
Figdraw.com, with permission.
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Copy and paste a formatted citation
Spandidos Publications style
Wang Z, Chang M, Shang W, Jia Y, Shan X, Chen X, Yang Y and Zhang J: Neutrophil extracellular traps in cardiovascular disease: Mechanisms and therapeutic implications (Review). Int J Mol Med 58: 323, 2026.
APA
Wang, Z., Chang, M., Shang, W., Jia, Y., Shan, X., Chen, X. ... Zhang, J. (2026). Neutrophil extracellular traps in cardiovascular disease: Mechanisms and therapeutic implications (Review). International Journal of Molecular Medicine, 58, 323. https://doi.org/10.3892/ijmm.2026.5994
MLA
Wang, Z., Chang, M., Shang, W., Jia, Y., Shan, X., Chen, X., Yang, Y., Zhang, J."Neutrophil extracellular traps in cardiovascular disease: Mechanisms and therapeutic implications (Review)". International Journal of Molecular Medicine 58.5 (2026): 323.
Chicago
Wang, Z., Chang, M., Shang, W., Jia, Y., Shan, X., Chen, X., Yang, Y., Zhang, J."Neutrophil extracellular traps in cardiovascular disease: Mechanisms and therapeutic implications (Review)". International Journal of Molecular Medicine 58, no. 5 (2026): 323. https://doi.org/10.3892/ijmm.2026.5994
Copy and paste a formatted citation
x
Spandidos Publications style
Wang Z, Chang M, Shang W, Jia Y, Shan X, Chen X, Yang Y and Zhang J: Neutrophil extracellular traps in cardiovascular disease: Mechanisms and therapeutic implications (Review). Int J Mol Med 58: 323, 2026.
APA
Wang, Z., Chang, M., Shang, W., Jia, Y., Shan, X., Chen, X. ... Zhang, J. (2026). Neutrophil extracellular traps in cardiovascular disease: Mechanisms and therapeutic implications (Review). International Journal of Molecular Medicine, 58, 323. https://doi.org/10.3892/ijmm.2026.5994
MLA
Wang, Z., Chang, M., Shang, W., Jia, Y., Shan, X., Chen, X., Yang, Y., Zhang, J."Neutrophil extracellular traps in cardiovascular disease: Mechanisms and therapeutic implications (Review)". International Journal of Molecular Medicine 58.5 (2026): 323.
Chicago
Wang, Z., Chang, M., Shang, W., Jia, Y., Shan, X., Chen, X., Yang, Y., Zhang, J."Neutrophil extracellular traps in cardiovascular disease: Mechanisms and therapeutic implications (Review)". International Journal of Molecular Medicine 58, no. 5 (2026): 323. https://doi.org/10.3892/ijmm.2026.5994
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