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From tumor immunotherapy to myocardial injury: A mechanistic discussion of immune checkpoint inhibitor‑related myocarditis (Review)

  • Authors:
    • Leiyang Dai
    • Yong Duan
    • Qiuxia Xiong
  • View Affiliations / Copyright

    Affiliations: Department of Clinical Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan 650000, P.R. China
    Copyright: © Dai et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of Creative Commons Attribution License.
  • Article Number: 332
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    Published online on: September 26, 2025
       https://doi.org/10.3892/mmr.2025.13697
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Abstract

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have revolutionized cancer therapy, markedly improving the survival rate of numerous malignancies. However, the emergence of immune‑related adverse events, particularly ICI‑related myocarditis, poses substantial clinical challenges. Despite its relatively low incidence, ICI‑related myocarditis demands urgent attention due to high mortality rates and treatment‑related cardiovascular toxicity. The present review provides an in‑depth analysis of the immunopathological mechanisms of ICI‑related myocarditis, with a focus on the physiological role of immune checkpoints, the core mechanisms of immune tolerance failure following ICI blockade, the influence of genetics and the microenvironment, and the effects of myocardial electrophysiology and hormones. Attention is also given to the cellular and molecular mechanisms, particularly the roles of T cells and macrophages. The current review highlights the critical interactions between these factors in the initiation and progression of ICI‑related myocarditis. In addition, clinical manifestations, diagnostic criteria incorporating advanced imaging and biomarker profiling, and differential diagnosis considerations are summarized, underscoring the necessity of multidisciplinary collaboration for timely intervention. Mechanistic elucidation of ICI‑related myocarditis will enable preventive strategies, optimized early diagnostics and improved patient outcomes, and may ultimately reduce the clinical incidence of this disease.
View Figures

Figure 1

Examination and diagnostic process
for suspected ICI-related myocarditis. ACS, acute coronary
syndrome; BNP, B-type natriuretic peptide; CK, creatine kinase;
CMR, cardiac magnetic resonance; cTn, cardiac troponin; ICI, immune
checkpoint inhibitor; NT-proBNP, N-terminal pro-BNP; PE, pulmonary
embolism.

Figure 2

Physiological functions of immune
checkpoints and myocardial protection. Physiological functions of
immune checkpoints and myocardial protection. PD-1/PD-L1 signaling
pathway, immunoregulatory function of CTLA-4 and the co-inhibitory
role of LAG-3 are shown.

Figure 3

Mechanism of immune system tolerance
imbalance in ICI-related myocarditis. (A) Defects in central
tolerance. (B) Disruption of peripheral tolerance. APC,
antigen-presenting cell; DCs, dendritic cells; ICI, immune
checkpoint inhibitor; mTECs, medullary thymic epithelial cells;
MYH, myosin heavy chain; Treg, regulatory T cell.

Figure 4

(A) Cross-reactivity of cardiac
antigens. (B) Role of CD8+ T cells. (C) Role of
CD4+ T cells. (D) Mechanism of action of macrophages:
Infiltration and pro-inflammatory mediator release, antigen
presentation, T-cell interactions and macrophage phenotypic
plasticity are shown. APC, antigen-presenting cell; ICI, immune
checkpoint inhibitor; MYH, myosin heavy chain; TCR, T-cell
receptor; Th, T helper; CXCL9, C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 9; MHC,
major histocompatibility complex.
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Copy and paste a formatted citation
Spandidos Publications style
Dai L, Duan Y and Xiong Q: From tumor immunotherapy to myocardial injury: A mechanistic discussion of immune checkpoint inhibitor‑related myocarditis (Review). Mol Med Rep 32: 332, 2025.
APA
Dai, L., Duan, Y., & Xiong, Q. (2025). From tumor immunotherapy to myocardial injury: A mechanistic discussion of immune checkpoint inhibitor‑related myocarditis (Review). Molecular Medicine Reports, 32, 332. https://doi.org/10.3892/mmr.2025.13697
MLA
Dai, L., Duan, Y., Xiong, Q."From tumor immunotherapy to myocardial injury: A mechanistic discussion of immune checkpoint inhibitor‑related myocarditis (Review)". Molecular Medicine Reports 32.6 (2025): 332.
Chicago
Dai, L., Duan, Y., Xiong, Q."From tumor immunotherapy to myocardial injury: A mechanistic discussion of immune checkpoint inhibitor‑related myocarditis (Review)". Molecular Medicine Reports 32, no. 6 (2025): 332. https://doi.org/10.3892/mmr.2025.13697
Copy and paste a formatted citation
x
Spandidos Publications style
Dai L, Duan Y and Xiong Q: From tumor immunotherapy to myocardial injury: A mechanistic discussion of immune checkpoint inhibitor‑related myocarditis (Review). Mol Med Rep 32: 332, 2025.
APA
Dai, L., Duan, Y., & Xiong, Q. (2025). From tumor immunotherapy to myocardial injury: A mechanistic discussion of immune checkpoint inhibitor‑related myocarditis (Review). Molecular Medicine Reports, 32, 332. https://doi.org/10.3892/mmr.2025.13697
MLA
Dai, L., Duan, Y., Xiong, Q."From tumor immunotherapy to myocardial injury: A mechanistic discussion of immune checkpoint inhibitor‑related myocarditis (Review)". Molecular Medicine Reports 32.6 (2025): 332.
Chicago
Dai, L., Duan, Y., Xiong, Q."From tumor immunotherapy to myocardial injury: A mechanistic discussion of immune checkpoint inhibitor‑related myocarditis (Review)". Molecular Medicine Reports 32, no. 6 (2025): 332. https://doi.org/10.3892/mmr.2025.13697
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