Recent research has indicated that Y-box binding
protein 1 (YBX1/YB-1) has multifaceted functions in regulating drug
resistance, PANoptosis, stress response, ferroptosis and cell
proliferation (1–5). YBX1 is identified as an oncogene
which is overexpressed and positively associated with poor outcomes
and survival in numerous cancers including liver, endometrial,
non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC), ovarian, breast, gastric
cancer, kidney renal papillary and clear cell renal cell carcinoma
(4–11). YBX1 performs the roles through the
regulation of nucleotide metabolism, pre-mRNA splicing, DNA repair,
stress granule formation, transcription and translation, and
sorting of microRNAs (miRNAs) into exosomes (12–14).
Previous studies have shown that YBX1 also plays a crucial role in
regulating RNA methylation modification which affects mRNA
stability and translation, including N6-methyladenine
(m6A) and 5-methylcytosine (m5C) RNA
modifications (5,15). The performance of these functions
depends on the structure and location of YBX1. The structural
features of YBX1 are crucial for its diverse functions, mediating
interactions with DNA, RNA and protein molecules (3,16).
SU056 has been demonstrated to specifically target
and inhibit the YBX1 protein, rendering it a valuable tool for
investigating YBX1 inhibition (17–20).
Multiple studies have demonstrated that SU056 effectively hinders
tumor progression in diverse types of cancer including pancreatic
cancer (18), triple-negative
breast cancer (17) and ovarian
cancer (19,20).
In the present review, the focus is mainly on the
function of YBX1 in RNA modification. The mechanisms by which YBX1
is involved in RNA modification, including m5C,
m6A and RNA editing are clarified, and YBX1 is proposed
as a potential therapeutic target. Furthermore, the roles of YBX1
in regulating anticancer drug resistance through RNA modification
are discussed, and its functions on tumor progression are
encompassed. This provides a research foundation for the
development of anticancer drugs targeting YBX1.
YBX1 was initially isolated using double-stranded
oligonucleotides in a phage λgt11 library screening as the
interacting molecule of the MHC class II gene Y-box element
(21). In 1992, the murine (m)
CCAAT-binding protein was identified and termed mYB-1 (22). The amino acid sequence of mYB-1 has
a 95% homology with human YB-1 (22). In addition, YBX1 cDNA was isolated
by screening the binding site through the enhancer oligonucleotide
of type 18 human papillomavirus in an expression library of HeLa
(23). Researchers found that YBX1
is a nuclear protein with a molecular weight of 42 kDa (23). YBX1 is expressed in most tissues,
including the liver, spleen, lung and heart (23). Shortly thereafter, it was shown
that YBX1 acted as a binding protein of human multidrug resistance
1 (MDR1) gene and regulated MDR1 gene expression in response to
adverse environments (24). In
humans, YBX1 genes are located on chromosome 1p34 as identified by
in situ fluorescence hybridization (25).
YBX1 belongs to the superfamily of the cold shock
proteins and is considered to be evolutionarily conserved (26). The structure of YBX1 consists of
three distinct domains, the alanine/proline-rich domain (A/P site)
in the N-terminal, the cold shock domain (CSD) in the central
region and the C-terminal domain (CTD; Fig. 1). The A/P site domain is involved
in protein-protein interactions and mediates the assembly of
ribonucleoprotein complexes. Additionally, the A/P site domain
functions as a regulatory element, modulating the stabilization of
RNA-binding proteins (27). The
highly conserved CSD facilitates both DNA and RNA binding, plays a
crucial role in mRNA translation, and regulates the adaptation of
bacteria to low temperatures (28). In previous studies, CSD was
identified to contribute to the identification of m5C
modification, enhancing mRNA stability and promoting translation
(29,30). The CTD contains two important
domains that mediate the localization of YBX1, the cytoplasmic
retention site (CRS) and the nuclear localization signals (NLS),
regulating the location of YBX1 between the cell nucleus and
cytoplasm in response to cellular stimuli. Furthermore, CTD has
been shown to mediate interactions with diverse protein partners
and DNA/RNA-binding proteins (27,28).
YBX1 is usually localized in the cell cytoplasm due to the stronger
influence of CRS compared with that of NLS. The various functions
of YBX1 stem from its diverse domains, making it a key
DNA/RNA-binding protein.
Research has revealed that the cytidine residues at
position five of RNA could be methylated by m5C
methyltransferases, such as the NOP2/Sun RNA methyltransferase
(NSUN) protein family (31).
During the m5C modification, numerous methyltransferases
and proteins are involved in this process, including m5C
writers, m5C erasers and m5C readers
(31,32). In humans, m5C writers
consist of the NSUN protein family 1–6 and DNA methyltransferase 2,
which catalyze cytosine-5 methylation (32). Among them, NSUN2 is considered the
most prominent m5C methyltransferase (32). The m5C erasers contain
the ten-eleven translocation (TET) protein family and AlkB homolog
1, histone H2A dioxygenase (32,33).
However, the functions of the m5C eraser and those of
additional eraser proteins require further investigation (33). The m5C readers include
YBX1, YTH N6-methyladenosine RNA binding protein F2 (YTHDF2) and
Aly/Ref export factor (ALYREF), and assume the recognition of the
m5C modification (34,35).
In addition, ALYREF is required for the nuclear export of
m5C-modified mRNA (34). Furthermore, YBX1 can identify
m5C-modified mRNA in the cytoplasm and maintain mRNA
stability (36,37). YTHDF2 can regulate the maturation
of m5C-modified ribosomal RNA (rRNA) (35).
Although YBX1 is mainly studied in cancers, it has
also been demonstrated to regulate bone formation and metabolic
diseases through m5C modification (52,53).
Li et al (52) demonstrated
that elevated YBX1 could facilitate osteogenesis and reduce bone
loss. YBX1 deletion could repress the morphology of CD31-high,
endomucin-high (CD31highEMCNhigh) endothelial
cells, leading to decreased bone mass in an
m5C-dependent manner. YBX1 could modulate the stability
of EMCN, CD31 and bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP4), and
influence the release of BMP4, thereby controlling bone formation
(52). Furthermore, YBX1 could
promote adipogenesis and autophagy in an m5C-dependent
manner, thus leading to obesity (45). In a previous study it was found
that YBX1 directly recognized m5C-modified Unc-51 like
autophagy activating kinase 1 (ULK1) mRNA and improved its
stability. In addition, YBX1 enhanced ULK1-mediated autophagy and
increased obesity formation (53).
These findings indicate that YBX1-mediated m5C
modification assumes a crucial function in various diseases.
YBX1 can serve as a transcription factor or
DNA-binding protein that regulates the expression of multiple genes
(75). Accumulating evidence has
revealed that YBX1 is a regulatory protein involved in the
m6A modification. In 2021, Feng et al (15) demonstrated the significance of YBX1
in myeloid leukemia cell survival via m6A modification
of BCL2 apoptosis regulator (BCL2). It was found that YBX1 was
notably upregulated, promoting proliferation in myeloid leukemia
cells. Mechanistically, YBX1 stabilized m6A-modified
BCL2 and MYC proto-oncogene, BHLH transcription factor by
cooperating with IGF2BP1 and IGF2BP3. Furthermore, the loss of YBX1
led to an accelerated decay of m6A-tagged BCL2 mRNA,
suggesting that YBX1 can regulate BCL2 expression in an
m6A-dependent manner, thus playing a critical role in
the survival of myeloid leukemia cells (15). Similarly, YBX1 is required for the
survival of leukemia stem cells (94). YBX1 was revealed to interact with
the IGF2BP protein to enhance the stability of
m6A-tagged tyrosine 3-monooxygenase/tryptophan
5-monooxygenase activation protein zeta (YWHAZ) mRNA. YBX1
deficiency downregulated the expression of YWHAZ by promoting YWHAZ
mRNA degradation in an m6A-dependent manner, thereby
maintaining leukemia cell survival (94). Additionally, YBX1 has been shown to
affect embryonic development (95,96)
and ischemic stroke (97) in an
m6A-dependent manner. YBX1 was found to influence the
gene expression of zygotic genome activation by
m6A-modified RNA, thereby regulating early embryonic
development. YBX1 fine-tuned polycomb repressive complex 2 activity
to regulate embryonic neural development (95) Peng et al (97) also observed that NSC-derived
exosomes loaded with YBX1 inhibited neuronal pyroptosis, thereby
mitigating the development of ischemic stroke. YBX1 interacted with
IGF2BP1 to heighten the stability of m6A-tagged G
protein-coupled receptor 30 (GPR30) mRNA, which increased the
expression of GPR30. GPR30 then facilitated the degradation of
NLRP3 by ubiquitination, alleviating the progression of ischemic
stroke. The inhibition of IGF2BP1 decreased YBX1 binding to GPR30,
which contributed to the progression of ischemic stroke (97). YBX1 is a regulatory protein
involved in the m6A modification of RNA. It stabilizes
the mRNA of target genes, thereby enhancing their expression.
Unlike the YBX1 regulation model in the m5C
modification, the IGF2BP protein is required for YBX1 to maintain
mRNA stability in the m6A modification. Furthermore,
YBX1 can function as an m6A reader, dependent on the
IGF2BP protein (98–100). The functions of YBX1 in
N1methyladenosine (m1A) and 7methylguanosine
(m7G) remain unknown. Therefore, further investigation
is needed to explore the contributions and potential mechanisms of
YBX1 in RNA methylation modifications.
Research has shown that YBX1 upregulation could
promote tumor development by regulating m5C and
m6A modifications. SU056 is a small molecule of
azopodophyllotoxin that inhibits YBX1, and helps reverse drug
resistance and inhibit tumor development (17–20).
YBX1 knockdown was shown to reduce gemcitabine resistance, and
SU056 in combination with gemcitabine overcame gemcitabine
resistance in pancreatic cancer (18). Additionally, SU056 was demonstrated
to inhibit triple-negative breast cancer growth in preclinical
models by targeting YB-1 to disrupt protein translation mechanisms
(17). SU056 also reduced the
progression of ovarian cancer while sensitizing to
paclitaxel-mediated cytotoxicity (20). Furthermore, platinum-induced cell
stress enhanced YBX1, which was expressed at high levels in
platinum-resistant ovarian cancer. YBX1 recognized and stabilized
CHD3 mRNA through m5C modification. By targeting YBX1,
SU056 reversed platinum resistance and enhanced tumor cell killing
(19). In addition, another YBX1
inhibitor, 2,4-dihydroxy-5-pyrimidinyl imidothiocarbomate, also
exerted similar antitumor effects, although its mechanism of action
remains unexplored (106). The
activities and efficacy profiles of other YBX1 inhibitors also
remain incompletely characterized.
Collectively, SU056 has been demonstrated to exert
antitumor effects and reverse drug resistance by targeting YBX1,
with its effectiveness dependent on the cellular expression of YBX1
(20). Additionally, YBX1 has been
shown to facilitate tumor progression and confer drug resistance
through its regulation of RNA m5C and m6A
modifications (5,107–109). Therefore, it is hypothesized that
the antitumor effect and reversal of drug resistance exerted by
SU056 may be attributed to its inhibition of RNA m5A and
m6A methylation.
YBX1, a DNA/RNA-binding protein, is implicated in
DNA repair, mRNA transcription, pre-mRNA splicing, mRNA stability
regulation, translation and exosome sorting (28,110), influencing the development of
multiple diseases. Notably, extensive evidence has shown that YBX1
plays multifunctional roles in cancer progression and drug
resistance (111,112). Furthermore, RNA methylation
modifications are dysregulated in cancers and serve as potential
targets of tumor therapy (31).
Although YBX1 is implicated in various cancer hallmarks, its
underlying mechanisms, particularly those related to RNA
methylation modifications during cancer development such as
m1A, m5C, m6A and m7G
require further investigation. Understanding the functional role of
YBX1 in RNA modifications could provide novel insights into the
regulation of gene expression, cellular homeostasis and molecular
pathogenesis. This knowledge may also lead to promising therapeutic
strategies that target RNA modifications for cancer treatment.
Given its critical roles in cancer pathogenesis and
treatment resistance, YBX1 has emerged as an attractive therapeutic
target for anticancer therapy. Several approaches have been
explored to modulate YBX1 activity, including the use of small
molecule inhibitors. The YBX1 inhibitor SU056 has shown promising
efficacy in inhibiting tumor growth, promoting cell apoptosis and
sensitizing cancer cells to chemotherapy. Despite the significance
of YBX1 in cancer, the clinical application of YBX1 inhibitors
remains limited. Further investigations should focus on the
regulatory networks between YBX1 and RNA modifications, which will
broaden the understanding of the role of YBX1 in cellular activity
and tumorigenesis.
In summary, YBX1 plays a pivotal role in regulating
RNA modifications specifically m6A and m5C
RNA modifications influencing a variety of cellular processes and
diseases (Table I). Understanding
the underlying mechanisms of YBX1 in RNA modification is crucial
for developing effective strategies to treat cancers. Targeting
YBX1 and RNA modifications may help overcome the challenges of drug
resistance in the clinic, and the YBX1 inhibitor SU056 exhibits
great potential as an antitumor agent.
Not applicable.
Funding: No funding was received.
Not applicable.
XX conceived and designed the review, as well as
drafted and provided overall supervision of the manuscript. GX
performed and contributed to specific sections of the review and
participated in manuscript revision. YX was involved in revising
the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Data authentication is not applicable.
Not applicable.
Not applicable.
The authors declare that they have no competing
interests.
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