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High‑intensity exercise training inhibits excessive autophagy in the hyperlipidemic myocardium of ApoE‑/‑ mice via the NAD+‑mediated SIRT1/MFN2 pathway

  • Authors:
    • Shan Gao
    • Wei Yao
    • Jin Yang
    • Yujie Liu
    • Zuowei Pei
  • View Affiliations / Copyright

    Affiliations: Department of Central Laboratory, Central Hospital of Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, Liaoning 116033, P.R. China, Department of Ward of Emergency Internal Medicine, Central Hospital of Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, Liaoning 116033, P.R. China
    Copyright: © Gao et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of Creative Commons Attribution License.
  • Article Number: 43
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    Published online on: November 18, 2025
       https://doi.org/10.3892/mmr.2025.13753
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Abstract

Hyperlipidemia represents a key contributory factor in the development and progression of cardiovascular diseases, contributing to cardiac injury through mechanisms involving oxidative stress, inflammation and autophagic cell death. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) serves a critical role in cardiac energy metabolism by supporting mitochondrial function, oxidative phosphorylation and cell stress responses, primarily through the activation of sirtuins (SIRTs). Aerobic exercise training has been demonstrated to enhance cardiovascular function, primarily through the reduction of oxidative stress and inflammatory responses, while also promoting myocardial repair and functional recovery following injury. The present study aimed to explore the protective effects of NAD+ on hyperlipidemia‑induced cardiac damage in apolipoprotein E‑deficient (ApoE‑/‑) mice. Two mouse models were employed: A cohort of 8‑week‑old ApoE‑/‑ mice subjected to varying exercise intensities (moderate‑intensity continuous and high‑intensity interval training) for a 12‑week intervention period, and another cohort of 8‑week‑old ApoE‑/‑ mice divided into four groups [normal diet (ND), ND + NAD+, high‑fat diet (HFD) and HFD + NAD+] for a 16‑week intervention period. HFD supplemented with 45% fat Kcal% energy feed was used to induce hyperlipidemia. The metabolic data demonstrated that aerobic exercise training elevated myocardial NAD+ levels in hyperlipidemic mice, whereas NAD+ supplementation mitigated elevated lipid levels. Histological and molecular analysis (hematoxylin and eosin staining, wheat germ agglutinin staining, immunohistochemistry, TUNEL and western blotting) revealed that NAD+ alleviated oxidative stress, fibrosis, inflammation and apoptosis. In addition, by activating the SIRT1/mitofusin 2 pathway and enhancing the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway, the expression levels of LC3‑II and P62 were decreased, indicating enhanced autophagic flux, as the degradation process of autophagosomes fusing with lysosomes was promoted. The present study suggested that NAD+ supplementation could be a promising therapeutic approach to mitigate hyperlipidemia‑induced cardiac damage in clinical settings.
View Figures

Figure 1

Metabolic data in each group after 12
weeks of exercise training. (A) Schematic diagram of the
experimental model. (B) Changes in the body weight of mice. (C)
Quantitative analysis of heart/body weight ratio in each group. (D)
SOD levels in the serum of mice in each group (n=6). (E) MDA levels
in the serum of mice in each group (n=4). Serum (F) NAD+
and (G) NAD+/NADH levels in each group of mice (n=3).
(H) H&E, Masson and PAS staining heart tissue sections, with
arrows indicating positively stained cells. Scale bar, 100 µm;
magnification, ×40 (n=3). (I) Masson's trichrome staining of
myocardial tissue showing collagen deposition. (J) PAS) staining of
myocardial tissue showing glycogen deposition. Data are presented
as the mean ± standard error of the mean; statistical analysis was
performed using one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post hoc test.
*P<0.05, **P<0.01, ***P<0.001. ApoE−/−,
apolipoprotein E-deficient; H&E, hematoxylin and eosin; HFD,
high-fat diet; HIIT, high-intensity interval training; MDA,
malondialdehyde; MICT, moderate-intensity continuous training;
NAD+, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide; PAS, Periodic
acid-Schiff; SOD, superoxide dismutase.

Figure 2

Effects of NAD+
supplementation on body weight, lipid profiles and antioxidant
proteins in HFD-induced mice. (A) Schematic diagram of the
experimental model. (B) Body weight changes in the ND, ND +
NAD+, HFD and HFD + NAD+ groups. Lipid
profiles of the mice in all groups, including (C) TC, (D) TG and
(E) LDL-C (n=6). Semi-quantification of immunohistochemical results
showing significant upregulation of (F) SOD, (G) HO-1 and (H) SIRT3
in the HFD + NAD+ compared with in the HFD group (n=4).
(I) Immunohistochemical staining of the antioxidant proteins SOD,
HO-1 and SIRT3 in heart tissue; arrows indicate positively stained
cells. Magnification, ×40; scale bar, 100 µm (n=3). (J) Western
blot analysis of SOD, HO-1 and SIRT3 expression in heart tissue,
and semi-quantification of western blotting data, confirming
increased expression of SOD, HO-1 and SIRT3 in the HFD +
NAD+ group. Data are presented as the mean ± standard
error of the mean; statistical analysis was performed using one-way
ANOVA followed by Tukey's post hoc test. *P<0.05, **P<0.01,
***P<0.001. ApoE−/−, apolipoprotein E-deficient; HFD,
high-fat diet; HO-1, heme oxygenase 1; LDL-C, low-density
lipoprotein cholesterol; NAD+, nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide; ND, normal diet; SIRT3, sirtuin 3; SOD, superoxide
dismutase; TC, total cholesterol; TG, triglycerides.

Figure 3

NAD+ supplementation
attenuates myocardial fibrosis and ECM remodeling in HFD-induced
mice. (A) Masson's trichrome staining of myocardial tissue.
Blue-stained regions indicate collagen deposition (fibrotic areas),
and red indicates myocardial fibers. Black arrows point to areas of
increased collagen accumulation. Scale bar, 100 µm.
Immunohistochemical staining of fibrosis-related markers: (B)
TGF-β, (C) collagen I, and (D) collagen III. Brown staining
indicates positive expression, and black arrows highlight regions
with enhanced marker expression. Scale bar, 100 µm. (E) H&E
staining of myocardial tissue showing general histological
structure. Black arrows indicate areas of myocardial hypertrophy or
structural abnormalities. Scale bar, 100 µm. (F) WGA staining
showing improved myocardial cell integrity in the HFD +
NAD+ group. Scale bar, 100 µm. Semi-quantification of
the (G) Masson-positive area, and (H) TGF-β, (I) collagen I and (J)
collagen III levels. NAD+ supplementation significantly
reduced fibrosis and ECM remodeling in the HFD + NAD+
group compared with in the HFD group. Data are presented as the
mean ± standard error of the mean, n=3; statistical analysis was
performed using one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post hoc test.
**P<0.01, ***P<0.001. ECM, extracellular matrix; H&E,
hematoxylin and eosin; HFD, high-fat diet; NAD+,
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide; ND, normal diet; WGA, what germ
agglutinin.

Figure 4

NAD+ ameliorates cardiac
damage in hyperlipidemic mice by modulating the SIRT1/MFN2 pathway.
(A) Protein interaction analysis. (B) Expression levels of SIRT1
and MFN2 proteins in the heart tissues of mice. (C) Representative
immunohistochemistry images showing the expression of SIRT1 and
MFN2 in myocardial tissue. The arrows indicate areas of stained
cells. Scale bar, 100 µm; magnification, ×40. (D) SIRT1 and MFN 2
were detected by immunofluorescence double staining to assess
colocalization. Scale bars, 100 and 50 µm; magnification, ×40. Data
are presented as the mean ± standard error of the mean (n=3);
statistical analysis was performed using one-way ANOVA followed by
Tukey's post hoc test. *P<0.05, **P<0.01, ***P<0.001. HFD,
high-fat diet; MFN2, mitofusin 2; NAD+, nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide; ND, normal diet; SIRT1, sirtuin 1.

Figure 5

NAD+ supplementation
activates the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway in the myocardium. (A) TUNEL
staining was performed to assess myocardial cell apoptosis in the
heart tissues of mice. Magnification, ×40; scale bar, 100 µm. (B)
Protein interaction analysis. Expression levels of (C) p-PI3K/PI3K,
(D) p-AKT/AKT and (E) p-mTOR/mTOR in the heart tissues of mice.
Data are presented as the mean ± standard error of the mean (n=4);
statistical analysis was performed using one-way ANOVA followed by
Tukey's post hoc test. *P<0.05, **P<0.01. HFD, high-fat diet;
Mfn2, mitofusin 2; NAD+, nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide; ND, normal diet; p-, phosphorylated; Sirt1, sirtuin
1.

Figure 6

NAD+ protects
ApoE−/− HL-1 cells from lipid accumulation and oxidative
stress. (A) Cell viability was significantly enhanced in the 5 mM
NAD+ group compared with that in the control group. (B)
NAD+ supplementation reduced TC levels in
ApoE−/−-treated cells. (C) TG levels were also
significantly decreased by NAD+ treatment. (D) LDL-C
levels were also reduced in the ApoE−/− +
NAD+ group, indicating improved lipid metabolism. (E)
NAD+ supplementation increased GSH levels, reflecting
enhanced antioxidant defense. (F) SOD activity was also
significantly elevated in the ApoE−/− + NAD+
group, suggesting improved oxidative stress response. (G) ROS
staining revealed reduced reactive oxygen species in the
ApoE−/− + NAD+ group, indicating a decrease
in oxidative stress. Scale bar, 200 µm. (H) Microscopic images
confirmed improved cell morphology and viability in the
ApoE−/− + NAD+ group. Scale bar, 100 µm. (I)
JC-1 staining showed improved mitochondrial membrane potential in
the ApoE−/− + NAD+ group. Scale bar, 100 µm.
(J) Immunofluorescence staining demonstrated increased expression
of SIRT1 in the ApoE−/− + NAD+ group,
suggesting activation of the SIRT1 pathway. Magnification, ×40;
scale bar, 50 µm. Data are presented as the mean ± standard error
of the mean (n=3); statistical analysis was performed using one-way
ANOVA followed by Tukey's post hoc test. *P<0.05, **P<0.01,
***P<0.001. ApoE−/−, apolipoprotein E-deficient; GSH,
glutathione; LDL-C, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol;
NAD+, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide; ROS, reactive
oxygen species; SIRT1, sirtuin 1; SOD, superoxide dismutase; TC,
total cholesterol; TG, triglycerides.

Figure 7

NAD+ enhances MFN2/SIRT1
expression and activates the PI3K/AKT pathway in HL-1 cells. (A)
Representative immunofluorescence double staining showing
colocalization of MFN2 and SIRT1 in HL-1 cells. Magnification, ×40;
scale bars, 100 and 50 µm. Protein expression levels of (B) SIRT1
and MFN2, (C) PI3K and p-PI3K, (D) AKT and p-AKT, and (E) mTOR and
p-mTOR in HL-1 cells. Data are presented as the mean ± SEM (n=4);
statistical analysis was performed using one-way ANOVA followed by
Tukey's post hoc test. *P<0.05, **P<0.01, ***P<0.001.
ApoE−/−, apolipoprotein E-deficient; MFN2, mitofusin 2;
NAD+, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide; p-,
phosphorylated; SIRT1, sirtuin 1.

Figure 8

Mechanistic overview of
NAD+ in improving HFD-induced cardiac dysfunction.
High-intensity interval training elevates cardiac NAD+
levels, and subsequent intraperitoneal NAD+
supplementation further activates SIRT1/MFN2 signaling. This
enhances PI3K/AKT/mTOR phosphorylation, promoting autophagy and
mitochondrial quality control. Interventions also improve lipid
metabolism, reducing TG, T-CHO, and LDL-C. Together, these
mechanisms mitigate mitochondrial dysfunction, and metabolic
disturbances in HFD-induced cardiac injury. LDL-C, low-density
lipoprotein cholesterol; MFN2, mitofusin 2; NAD+,
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide; T-CHO, total cholesterol; TG,
triglycerides; SIRT1, sirtuin 1.
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Copy and paste a formatted citation
Spandidos Publications style
Gao S, Yao W, Yang J, Liu Y and Pei Z: High‑intensity exercise training inhibits excessive autophagy in the hyperlipidemic myocardium of ApoE<sup>‑/‑</sup> mice via the NAD<sup>+</sup>‑mediated SIRT1/MFN2 pathway. Mol Med Rep 33: 43, 2026.
APA
Gao, S., Yao, W., Yang, J., Liu, Y., & Pei, Z. (2026). High‑intensity exercise training inhibits excessive autophagy in the hyperlipidemic myocardium of ApoE<sup>‑/‑</sup> mice via the NAD<sup>+</sup>‑mediated SIRT1/MFN2 pathway. Molecular Medicine Reports, 33, 43. https://doi.org/10.3892/mmr.2025.13753
MLA
Gao, S., Yao, W., Yang, J., Liu, Y., Pei, Z."High‑intensity exercise training inhibits excessive autophagy in the hyperlipidemic myocardium of ApoE<sup>‑/‑</sup> mice via the NAD<sup>+</sup>‑mediated SIRT1/MFN2 pathway". Molecular Medicine Reports 33.1 (2026): 43.
Chicago
Gao, S., Yao, W., Yang, J., Liu, Y., Pei, Z."High‑intensity exercise training inhibits excessive autophagy in the hyperlipidemic myocardium of ApoE<sup>‑/‑</sup> mice via the NAD<sup>+</sup>‑mediated SIRT1/MFN2 pathway". Molecular Medicine Reports 33, no. 1 (2026): 43. https://doi.org/10.3892/mmr.2025.13753
Copy and paste a formatted citation
x
Spandidos Publications style
Gao S, Yao W, Yang J, Liu Y and Pei Z: High‑intensity exercise training inhibits excessive autophagy in the hyperlipidemic myocardium of ApoE<sup>‑/‑</sup> mice via the NAD<sup>+</sup>‑mediated SIRT1/MFN2 pathway. Mol Med Rep 33: 43, 2026.
APA
Gao, S., Yao, W., Yang, J., Liu, Y., & Pei, Z. (2026). High‑intensity exercise training inhibits excessive autophagy in the hyperlipidemic myocardium of ApoE<sup>‑/‑</sup> mice via the NAD<sup>+</sup>‑mediated SIRT1/MFN2 pathway. Molecular Medicine Reports, 33, 43. https://doi.org/10.3892/mmr.2025.13753
MLA
Gao, S., Yao, W., Yang, J., Liu, Y., Pei, Z."High‑intensity exercise training inhibits excessive autophagy in the hyperlipidemic myocardium of ApoE<sup>‑/‑</sup> mice via the NAD<sup>+</sup>‑mediated SIRT1/MFN2 pathway". Molecular Medicine Reports 33.1 (2026): 43.
Chicago
Gao, S., Yao, W., Yang, J., Liu, Y., Pei, Z."High‑intensity exercise training inhibits excessive autophagy in the hyperlipidemic myocardium of ApoE<sup>‑/‑</sup> mice via the NAD<sup>+</sup>‑mediated SIRT1/MFN2 pathway". Molecular Medicine Reports 33, no. 1 (2026): 43. https://doi.org/10.3892/mmr.2025.13753
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