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Review Open Access

Research progress of anti‑angiogenic therapy combined with immunotherapy and radiotherapy for the treatment of brain metastases in non‑small cell lung cancer (Review)

  • Authors:
    • Man Li
    • Jingyan Gao
    • Fei Lu
    • Chengshu Gong
    • Jie Zhang
    • Li Wang
    • Yaoxiong Xia
  • View Affiliations / Copyright

    Affiliations: Department of Radiotherapy, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Yunnan Cancer Hospital, Yunnan Cancer Center, Kunming, Yunnan 650032, P.R. China
    Copyright: © Li et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of Creative Commons Attribution License.
  • Article Number: 434
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    Published online on: July 8, 2025
       https://doi.org/10.3892/ol.2025.15180
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Abstract

The treatment of brain metastases (BMs) from non‑small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is primarily systemic and local; however, the therapeutic effects of various treatment methods on BMs are minimal. The occurrence of BMs from NSCLC is a complex process. The penetration of tumour cells into the blood‑brain barrier changes the function of cell junctions, leading to changes in the microenvironment of intracranial tumours. Antitumour therapies such as immunotherapy (IT), chemotherapy, targeted therapy and radiotherapy (RT) all affect the tumour immune microenvironment (TIM). Anti‑angiogenic drugs (AADs) normalize blood vessels and improve access to the tumours, which is an effective strategy for combination IT. IT combined with RT improves the survival rate in patients with BMs and reduces the risk of brain failure and nervous system mortality. AADs can markedly alleviate radiation‑induced brain injury after RT. Furthermore, anti‑angiogenic therapy can regulate the immune checkpoint inhibitor‑mediated microenvironment of intracranial tumours. Combining these three factors may improve the prognosis of patients with NSCLC and BMs. However, there is no reliable evidence on the safety and efficacy of their combination therapy. Therefore, the present article reviews the effects of AADs combined with IT and RT on the TIM of patients with NSCLC with BMs and the clinical application progress in order to provide ideas for the treatment of NSCLC with BMs.
View Figures

Figure 1

Differences in the immune
microenvironment between intracranial and extracranial brain
metastases. PD-1, programmed cell death protein 1; PD-L1,
programmed cell death protein ligand 1.

Figure 2

Anti-angiogenesis therapy can improve
immunosuppression in the tumour microenvironment. AAD,
anti-angiogenesis drug; MDSC, myeloid-derived suppressor cell; TAM,
tumour-associated macrophage.

Figure 3

Mechanisms of radiotherapy combined
with immunotherapy and anti-angiogenesis therapy in the treatment
of malignant tumours. IC, immune cells; T-ADC, tumour
antigen-presenting dendritic cells; ITC, immunogenic tumour cells;
ICIs, immune checkpoint inhibitors; CTL, cytotoxic T lymphocytes;
AAD, anti-angiogenesis drug; EC, endothelial cells.
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Copy and paste a formatted citation
Spandidos Publications style
Li M, Gao J, Lu F, Gong C, Zhang J, Wang L and Xia Y: Research progress of anti‑angiogenic therapy combined with immunotherapy and radiotherapy for the treatment of brain metastases in non‑small cell lung cancer (Review). Oncol Lett 30: 434, 2025.
APA
Li, M., Gao, J., Lu, F., Gong, C., Zhang, J., Wang, L., & Xia, Y. (2025). Research progress of anti‑angiogenic therapy combined with immunotherapy and radiotherapy for the treatment of brain metastases in non‑small cell lung cancer (Review). Oncology Letters, 30, 434. https://doi.org/10.3892/ol.2025.15180
MLA
Li, M., Gao, J., Lu, F., Gong, C., Zhang, J., Wang, L., Xia, Y."Research progress of anti‑angiogenic therapy combined with immunotherapy and radiotherapy for the treatment of brain metastases in non‑small cell lung cancer (Review)". Oncology Letters 30.3 (2025): 434.
Chicago
Li, M., Gao, J., Lu, F., Gong, C., Zhang, J., Wang, L., Xia, Y."Research progress of anti‑angiogenic therapy combined with immunotherapy and radiotherapy for the treatment of brain metastases in non‑small cell lung cancer (Review)". Oncology Letters 30, no. 3 (2025): 434. https://doi.org/10.3892/ol.2025.15180
Copy and paste a formatted citation
x
Spandidos Publications style
Li M, Gao J, Lu F, Gong C, Zhang J, Wang L and Xia Y: Research progress of anti‑angiogenic therapy combined with immunotherapy and radiotherapy for the treatment of brain metastases in non‑small cell lung cancer (Review). Oncol Lett 30: 434, 2025.
APA
Li, M., Gao, J., Lu, F., Gong, C., Zhang, J., Wang, L., & Xia, Y. (2025). Research progress of anti‑angiogenic therapy combined with immunotherapy and radiotherapy for the treatment of brain metastases in non‑small cell lung cancer (Review). Oncology Letters, 30, 434. https://doi.org/10.3892/ol.2025.15180
MLA
Li, M., Gao, J., Lu, F., Gong, C., Zhang, J., Wang, L., Xia, Y."Research progress of anti‑angiogenic therapy combined with immunotherapy and radiotherapy for the treatment of brain metastases in non‑small cell lung cancer (Review)". Oncology Letters 30.3 (2025): 434.
Chicago
Li, M., Gao, J., Lu, F., Gong, C., Zhang, J., Wang, L., Xia, Y."Research progress of anti‑angiogenic therapy combined with immunotherapy and radiotherapy for the treatment of brain metastases in non‑small cell lung cancer (Review)". Oncology Letters 30, no. 3 (2025): 434. https://doi.org/10.3892/ol.2025.15180
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