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The science of memory: A comprehensive analysis of declarative and non‑declarative memory mechanisms and updates (Review)

  • Authors:
    • Rajesh Yadav
    • Anis Ahmad Chaudhary
    • Richa Mishra
    • Sanjay Kumar
  • View Affiliations / Copyright

    Affiliations: Department of Physiology, Sharda School of Allied Health Sciences, Sharda University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh 201310, India, Department of Biology, College of Science, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University (IMSIU), Riyadh 11623, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Department of Computer Engineering, Parul University, Ta. Waghodia, Vadodara, Gujarat 391760, India, Biological and Bio‑computational Laboratory, Department of Life Science, Sharda School of Bio‑Science and Technology, Sharda University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, 201310, India
    Copyright: © Yadav et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of Creative Commons Attribution License [CC BY 4.0].
  • Article Number: 40
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    Published online on: March 26, 2026
       https://doi.org/10.3892/wasj.2026.455
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Abstract

Memory is a vital cognitive process of the acquisition, storage and retrieval of sensory information, which is essential for understanding and learning. It is classified as sensory, short‑term and long‑term memory. A particular type of memory may be associated with different areas of the brain, such as navigational memory, which may be regulated by the basal ganglia, cerebellum, hippocampus, entorhinal cortex, as well as associated parahippocampal and retrosplenial cortices. Emotional learning is associated with the auditory cortex and amygdala. Memory is also regulated by epigenetic mechanisms; for example, hypomethylation enhance memory by enhancing the expression of memory‑associated genes. The present review provides a comprehensive overview of memory mechanisms and updates, as well as the molecular mechanisms involving the procedure of memory formation. The molecular mechanisms involve long‑term potentiation and the cyclic AMP signalling pathway. The role of nitric oxide in memory formation is also discussed. The present review also expands to the cellular level, exploring how dopamine neurons orchestrate the balance of memory formation and forgetting. Neurogenesis is associated with the formation of new memory. The hippocampus is associated with learning and memory formation. The dentate gyrus is a unique area of the hippocampus that can generate new neurons throughout adulthood, a process known as adult neurogenesis. Memory modulation is a high‑priority research topic for future research, as modern research reveals that memory can be modulated by specific receptor agonists, such as glutamate receptor agonists and deep brain stimulation techniques. However, the exact mechanisms involved need to be further elucidate and validated by clinical evidence in human studies.
View Figures

Figure 1

Illustration of memory
classification: Memory is classified into sensory memory,
short-term memory, and long-term memory. Long-term memory is
divided into declarative and non-declarative memory. Declarative
memory is classified into semantic and episodic memory, while
nondeclarative memory is classified into procedural, emotional,
priming, conditioning, and non-associated learning.

Figure 2

The illustration of different memory
areas of the human brain: Semantic memory is coded by the
prefrontal cortex, anterior and lateral temporal cortex; the
hippocampus, medial temporal cortex, and neocortex code episodic
memory. The basal ganglia code procedural memory. Conditioning
memory related to the amygdala, cerebellum, and priming memory by
the neocortex. Short term memory is encoded by the cortex region,
the prefrontal cortex, the neocortex, sensory and motor cortex. The
figure was created in BioRender (https://BioRender.com).

Figure 3

Illustration of declarative and
nondeclarative memories (A) Semantic memory: Thinking about the
facts of an orange. (B) Episodic memory, thinking about specific
places and events. (C) Procedural memory, showing learning of
cycling. (D) Classical conditioning memory of Pavlov.

Figure 4

Schematic diagram of a rat showing
place cells and grid cells. (A) The hippocampus place cells which
fire when the rat reach at a particular position in the
environment. Place cells serve as an internal GPS that maps the
movements of a rat and enables the formation of spatial memories by
firing at specific coordinates, and provide a rat with its
real-time position. (B) Shows of grid cells, which are located in
the entorhinal cortex, activate when the rat reaches specific spots
in an environment. These firing locations form a unique hexagonal
grid pattern. In this way, it generates an internal coordinate
system for navigation. These two types of cells, hippocampal place
cells and entorhinal grid cells, form an interconnected network for
building spatial maps and navigation.

Figure 5

(A) Illustration of a location of
hippocampus in the brain. (B) Different regions of hippocampus CA1,
CA2, CA3 in hippocampus. (C) Coronal section of the mouse brain,
and the location of the hippocampus is shown which indicates
different subareas such as Cornus Ammonis (CA) and Dentate gyrus
(DG). CA is subdivided into 3 region CA1, CA2, and CA3. While DG is
the area where neurogenesis was shown. The image was created using
BioRender (https://BioRender.com).
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Spandidos Publications style
Yadav R, Chaudhary AA, Mishra R and Kumar S: The science of memory: A comprehensive analysis of declarative and non‑declarative memory mechanisms and updates (Review). World Acad Sci J 8: 40, 2026.
APA
Yadav, R., Chaudhary, A.A., Mishra, R., & Kumar, S. (2026). The science of memory: A comprehensive analysis of declarative and non‑declarative memory mechanisms and updates (Review). World Academy of Sciences Journal, 8, 40. https://doi.org/10.3892/wasj.2026.455
MLA
Yadav, R., Chaudhary, A. A., Mishra, R., Kumar, S."The science of memory: A comprehensive analysis of declarative and non‑declarative memory mechanisms and updates (Review)". World Academy of Sciences Journal 8.3 (2026): 40.
Chicago
Yadav, R., Chaudhary, A. A., Mishra, R., Kumar, S."The science of memory: A comprehensive analysis of declarative and non‑declarative memory mechanisms and updates (Review)". World Academy of Sciences Journal 8, no. 3 (2026): 40. https://doi.org/10.3892/wasj.2026.455
Copy and paste a formatted citation
x
Spandidos Publications style
Yadav R, Chaudhary AA, Mishra R and Kumar S: The science of memory: A comprehensive analysis of declarative and non‑declarative memory mechanisms and updates (Review). World Acad Sci J 8: 40, 2026.
APA
Yadav, R., Chaudhary, A.A., Mishra, R., & Kumar, S. (2026). The science of memory: A comprehensive analysis of declarative and non‑declarative memory mechanisms and updates (Review). World Academy of Sciences Journal, 8, 40. https://doi.org/10.3892/wasj.2026.455
MLA
Yadav, R., Chaudhary, A. A., Mishra, R., Kumar, S."The science of memory: A comprehensive analysis of declarative and non‑declarative memory mechanisms and updates (Review)". World Academy of Sciences Journal 8.3 (2026): 40.
Chicago
Yadav, R., Chaudhary, A. A., Mishra, R., Kumar, S."The science of memory: A comprehensive analysis of declarative and non‑declarative memory mechanisms and updates (Review)". World Academy of Sciences Journal 8, no. 3 (2026): 40. https://doi.org/10.3892/wasj.2026.455
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