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Print ISSN: 2632-2900 Online ISSN: 2632-2919
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Environmental and behavioral risk factors for Cryptosporidium infection: A molecularly confirmed study

  • Authors:
    • Sukaina Rahman Neamah
    • Bassad A. Al‑Aboody
  • View Affiliations / Copyright

    Affiliations: Department of Biology, College of Science, University of Thi‑Qar, Nasiriyah, Thi Qar Governorate 64001, Iraq
    Copyright: © Neamah et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of Creative Commons Attribution License [CC BY 4.0].
  • Article Number: 80
    |
    Published online on: July 15, 2026
       https://doi.org/10.3892/wasj.2026.495
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Abstract

Cryptosporidium is a leading cause of diarrhea worldwide, transmitted via contaminated water, food and contact with infected animals. The aim of the present study was to identify environmental and behavioral risk factors for Cryptosporidium infection. For this purpose, the present cross‑sectional study was performed on 420 participants. Cryptosporidium oocysts were detected by modified Ziehl‑Neelsen staining and confirmed by nested PCR. The study subjects were divided into the infected (296) and uninfected (124) groups. Data on residence, animal contact, drinking water source [reverse osmosis (RO) vs. non‑RO] and education status were collected. Associations were assessed using the Chi‑squared test and multivariable logistic regression analysis. The results revealed that the prevalence of Cryptosporidium infection was 70.5%. Independent factors associated with infection were animal contact [adjusted odds ratio (AOR)=2.98; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.75‑5.02; P<0.001] and non‑RO water use (AOR=2.05; 95% CI, 1.10‑3.82; P=0.024). An increasing age exhibited a non‑significant trend (AOR=1.18 per category; 95% CI, 0.97‑1.42; P=0.097). Residence, sex and education were not significant. The Hosmer‑Lemeshow test indicated adequate model fit (P=0.208). On the whole, the present study demonstrates that animal contact and non‑RO water use are independently associated with Cryptosporidium infection. Improving water quality and hygiene practices following animal contact may help reduce disease transmission. 
View Figures

Figure 1

Microscopic appearance of
Cryptosporidium oocysts in a human stool sample using
modified Ziehl-Neelsen staining (1,000X oil immersion objectivie).
Oocysts appear as bright pink to red spherical bodies measuring 4-6
µm against a blue-green background. Both the black and yellow
arrows indicate Cryptosporidium oocysts; the yellow arrows
were used only to improve visibility in darker areas of the
image.

Figure 2

Agarose gel electrophoresis of nested
PCR products for Cryptosporidium spp. detection. The lanes
are as follows: Lane M, 100 bp DNA ladder; lane S1, positive
control; lanes (S2-4, S6 and S8-10), representative positive
patient samples (500-bp band); lanes (S5 and 7), negative
control.

Figure 3

Representative Sanger sequencing
chromatograms and sequence alignments of Cryptosporidium
isolates. (A) Isolate IQN.C1 (GenBank Accession no. PZ245405)
illustraring a single nucleotide transition (C → T) at position 194
within the non-coding SSU rRNA gene compared to the reference C.
parvum strain (KX264364.1). The altered nucleotide peak is
pointed out by a vertical arrow and boxed within the sequence text.
(B) Isolate IQN.C3 (GenBank Accession no. PZ245407) demonstrating
100% sequence identity and perfect local alignment with the
reference C. hominis strain (PZ120398.1) with no mismatches
or variants. As the SSU rRNA gene is a non-protein-coding ribosomal
RNA gene, cDNA coordinates, genomic coordinates, and codon numbers
are not applicable.
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Copy and paste a formatted citation
Spandidos Publications style
Neamah SR and Al‑Aboody BA: Environmental and behavioral risk factors for <em>Cryptosporidium</em> infection: A molecularly confirmed study. World Acad Sci J 8: 80, 2026.
APA
Neamah, S.R., & Al‑Aboody, B.A. (2026). Environmental and behavioral risk factors for <em>Cryptosporidium</em> infection: A molecularly confirmed study. World Academy of Sciences Journal, 8, 80. https://doi.org/10.3892/wasj.2026.495
MLA
Neamah, S. R., Al‑Aboody, B. A."Environmental and behavioral risk factors for <em>Cryptosporidium</em> infection: A molecularly confirmed study". World Academy of Sciences Journal 8.5 (2026): 80.
Chicago
Neamah, S. R., Al‑Aboody, B. A."Environmental and behavioral risk factors for <em>Cryptosporidium</em> infection: A molecularly confirmed study". World Academy of Sciences Journal 8, no. 5 (2026): 80. https://doi.org/10.3892/wasj.2026.495
Copy and paste a formatted citation
x
Spandidos Publications style
Neamah SR and Al‑Aboody BA: Environmental and behavioral risk factors for <em>Cryptosporidium</em> infection: A molecularly confirmed study. World Acad Sci J 8: 80, 2026.
APA
Neamah, S.R., & Al‑Aboody, B.A. (2026). Environmental and behavioral risk factors for <em>Cryptosporidium</em> infection: A molecularly confirmed study. World Academy of Sciences Journal, 8, 80. https://doi.org/10.3892/wasj.2026.495
MLA
Neamah, S. R., Al‑Aboody, B. A."Environmental and behavioral risk factors for <em>Cryptosporidium</em> infection: A molecularly confirmed study". World Academy of Sciences Journal 8.5 (2026): 80.
Chicago
Neamah, S. R., Al‑Aboody, B. A."Environmental and behavioral risk factors for <em>Cryptosporidium</em> infection: A molecularly confirmed study". World Academy of Sciences Journal 8, no. 5 (2026): 80. https://doi.org/10.3892/wasj.2026.495
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