Leptin induces ROS via NOX5 in healthy and neoplastic mammary epithelial cells
- Authors:
- Published online on: September 27, 2017 https://doi.org/10.3892/or.2017.6009
- Pages: 3254-3264
Abstract
Introduction
Excessive ROS production leads to oxidative stress, which is known to contribute to the pathogenesis of several diseases including inflammation (1), diabetes and obesity (2) and to play a role in carcinogenesis (3,4). In physiological conditions, ROS production is involved in many cell functions such as signalling (5), and growth (4). Excluding the mitochondria, cellular ROS production involves two other systems (6). The first is NADPH oxidases (NOX), the main driver of cellular ROS production in physiological (7) and pathological processes (8). The NOX family counts seven NOX isoenzymes, i.e. NOX1 to 5 plus dual oxidases (DUOX)1 and 2, some of which are expressed in cancer cells (9–11). The second ROS-producing system in cells are the NO synthases (NOS) (12,13). Three NOS isoenzymes are differentiated on tissue expression patterns (12,14,15). NO production plays a role in cell signalling (14), vascular relaxation (12), and immunity (15). However, the inducible isoform of NOS (iNOS) appears to play a role in metastasis, especially in breast cancer (16). NOS and NOX products can interact, and this mechanism is a powerful regulatory modulator of their activity (17).
Leptin has been widely studied as one of many different adipokines that are modulated during obesity (18). Leptin is upregulated in obesity where it is involved in critical steps of cell homeostasis from cell growth (19) to metabolism (20) and energy production (21). A crosslink between ROS production and leptin signalling has been reported in several tissues including endothelium (22) and ovaries (23), and could be one of the signaling pathways activated through the leptin receptor OB-R in the presence of leptin (24). However, there is surprisingly little data on how leptin affects oxidative stress, especially in cancer (25). Several studies have investigated the impact of leptin on different steps in breast carcinogenesis (26) from cell proliferation (27,28), inflammatory response (29) and modulation of the cell microenvironment (30) to cell signalling pathways (27,31), but few of them have focused on intracellular ROS production (32,33).
ROS production is involved in the pathogenesis of both obesity (2) and cancer (3) while leptin plays a well-known role in breast carcinogenesis (34). Yet very few studies have assessed the ability of adipokines to modulate ROS production (35) via NOX and NOS enzymes in cancer cells.
Here we attempted to determine whether leptin, mimicking normal and obesity situations, modulates the activity and gene expression of NOS and NOX enzymes and whether ROS-producing enzymes are healthy-state or metastatic neoplastic-dependent. Regarding literature, plasma leptin concentrations were defined around 10 to 30 ng/ml and 50 to 150 ng/ml respectively for a lean and an obese adult woman (36). Thus, we chose leptin doses at 10 ng/ml for physiological and 100 ng/ml for obese conditions, which are also relevant to tissue concentrations (30). We used healthy (HMEC) and neoplastic (MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231) mammary epithelial cells that express the leptin receptor (Ob-R) (37) and are sensitive to leptin signalling (28) to assess and characterize cellular ROS production under leptin via different fluorescent probes (38). We then determined whether this ROS production could be due to NOX or NOS enzymes.
Materials and methods
Cell culture
Healthy human mammary epithelial cells (HMEC) obtained from 55-year-old Caucasian women (Lonza, Basel, Switzerland) were grown in complete MEBM medium supplemented with hydrocortisone (0.5 µg/m1), epithelial growth factor (10 ng/ml), insulin (5 µg/ml), gentamicin (50 µg/ml)/amphotericin-B (50 ng/ml) and bovine pituitary extract (0.4%) as recommended by the manufacturer (Lonza). MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 neoplastic human mammary epithelial cells obtained from 69- and 51-year-old Caucasian women, respectively (ATCC, Molsheim, France), were grown in RPMI-1640 medium (Biowest, Nuaillé, France) containing 10% fetal calf serum, L-glutamine (2 mM), penicillin (50 IU/ml) and streptomycin (50 µg/ml) (Sigma-Aldrich, Saint-Quentin-Fallavier, France). Culture was carried out at 37°C in a humidified atmosphere with 5% CO2 until passage 15. For the experiments, the mammary epithelial cells were cultured at a density of 22,500 cells/cm2.
Treatment with leptin
Mammary epithelial cells were synchronized in serum-free medium for 24 h before initiation of leptin treatment. Cells (HMEC, MCF7 and MDA-MB-231) were grown for 0–2 h in their media either with or without recombinant human leptin (R&D Systems, Abingdon, UK) at physiological (10 ng/ml) or obese (100 ng/ml) concentrations. Cells were harvested after trypsinization. Total cell lysates were obtained by two successive thawing-freezing cycles in Tris HCl 25 mM buffer pH 7.4 containing Tween-20 0.1% (Sigma-Aldrich), with 15-sec periods in an ultra-sound bath, and then stored at −80°C until analysis.
RNA isolation and reverse transcription
After treatment with leptin, total RNA was isolated from the epithelial cells by TRIzol® reagent (Invitrogen, Saint Aubin, France) according to the manufacturer's protocol, and quantified using a NanoDrop spectrophotometer (NanoDrop®2000, Thermo Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA). Reverse transcription was performed in a thermocycler (Mastercycler® gradient; Eppendorf, Montesson, France) on 1 µg of total RNA for each condition using a high-capacity cDNA reverse transcription kit (Applied Biosystems, Saint Aubin, France) with random hexamer pdN6 primers.
Quantitative real-time PCR (q-PCR)
q-PCR was performed using SYBR®Green reagents according to the manufacturer's instructions on a StepOne system (Applied Biosystems). Each condition was assayed in triplicate. Relative quantification was obtained by the comparative Cq method, based on the formula 2−∆∆Cq (39). Expression levels were normalized to the housekeeping gene (β-actin) for each time point and expressed as fold-change from the basal level corresponding to untreated cells at time 0. Sequences and fragment sizes of the human-specific primers used are reported in Table I.
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) production
ROS production was measured by fluorescence using a microplate reader (Fluoroscan Ascent Microplate Fluorometer®, Thermo Scientific) for extracellular production and by flow cytometry for intracellular production (FC 500 MPL, Beckman Coulter, Villepinte, France). The probes used (FluoProbes®, Interchim, Montluçon, France) are given in Table II. Total cellular ROS production was determined by dichlorofluorescein (DCF). Cytosolic superoxide anion (O2•−) was assayed using dihydroethidine (DHE). Mitochondrial ROS production was assayed using dihydrorhodamine (DHR). Nitric oxide and peroxynitrite production was assayed using diaminofluorescein (DAF). Probe stock solutions (20 mM solution in DMSO) were stored under nitrogen at −80°C until analysis. Probes were used at 2 µM final concentration in cell media. Probe oxidation was measured at a wavelength of 488 nm for excitation and 520 nm for emission. Auto-oxidation of probe was subtracted. Results were normalized to the basal fluorescence signal without leptin and expressed in relative fluorescence units (RFU).
For extracellular production analysis, synchronized cells were incubated for 30 min in the dark at 37°C in their media with the appropriate probe (2 µM). After adding leptin (10 or 100 ng/ml) or medium (for control condition), cells were assayed for fluorescence every 10 min over a 120-min window in the microplate reader.
For intracellular production analysis, synchronized cells were incubated in presence of leptin (10 or 100 ng/ml) or medium (for control condition). After trypsinization, the cell suspension loaded with the appropriate probe (2 µM) was incubated for 30 min in the dark at 37°C then, submitted to fluorescent flow cytometry analysis on a log scale for 10,000 events (cell counts).
Intracellular calcium influx
To assess the calcium-dependent signalling pathway in cell ROS production, calcium influx was measured by fluorescence on the microplate reader using the Fluo-3 calcium probe (Interchim) at 2 µM as previously described (40). The effects of calcium channel blocking were measured in the presence of verapamil (20 µM) (Sigma-Aldrich). After synchronization, the cells were incubated for 30 min in the dark at 37°C in the appropriate growth medium with verapamil before addition of Fluo-3 or dichlorofluorescein. After adding leptin (10 or 100 ng/ml) or medium (for control condition) with or without verapamil, the cells were assayed for fluorescence every 10 min over a 120-min window. Probe oxidation was measured at a wavelength of 488 nm for excitation and 520 nm for emission. Results were expressed in relative fluorescence units (RFU).
NOX catalytic activity
NOX catalytic activity was measured by fluorescence using a microplate reader (Fluoroscan Ascent Microplate Fluorometer, Thermo Scientific) in presence of dichlorofluorescein (DCF) (Interchim).
Briefly, for experiments on the microplate reader: cells were incubated in the dark at 37°C in the reagent buffer (100 mM TrisHCl, 2 mM MgCl2, 0.5% Tween-20, 100 mM NADPH, 10 µM DCF, pH 7.4) (Sigma-Aldrich) in the presence or not of leptin at 10 or 100 ng/ml. Plates were assayed for fluorescence every 60 sec over a 10-min window. Stimulation of the fluorescent signal was obtained by the addition of calcium chloride (2 mM) in the reagent buffer. NOX inhibition was assayed by the addition of diphenyliodonium (DPI) (40 µM) to inhibit FAD enzymes or apocynin (ApoC) (40 µM) to inhibit NOX 1, 2 and 4 (Sigma-Aldrich), as previously described (41). Results were expressed in relative catalytic units normalized to the protein content of the cell.
NOX5 silencing
To confirm the involvement of NOX5 in ROS production, its expression was inhibited via siRNA. We used 21-nucleotide double-stranded siRNAs (5 nM) (Qiagen HP genome wide siRNA databank, forward 5′-GCC CUA UUU GAC UCC GAU ATT-3′, reverse 5′-UAU CGG AGU CAA AUA GGG CAA-3′) targeting the NOX5 mRNA sequence. Non-silencing RNA (5 nM) was used as negative siRNA control (scrambled siRNA).
The cells were siRNA-transfected as per the manufacturer's protocol (Qiagen, Courtaboeuf, France). Briefly, 22,500/cm2 cells were cultured in 6-well plates. After incubation with siRNA for 1 h, the wells were completed with the serum-free medium for 24 h. Synchronized cells were assayed for ROS production by fluorescence using a microplate reader for 120 min as described above, either with or without 10 or 100 ng/ml recombinant human leptin. Cells were then harvested and quantitative RT-PCR was performed to compare NOX5 mRNA silencing in the presence and absence of siRNA.
Statistical analysis
Each experiment was performed in triplicate and the average value was treated as a single data point. Statistical analyses were performed using GraphPad Prism5 (GraphPad Software, Inc., La Jolla, CA, USA). Data are expressed as means ± standard deviation. Values for fluorescence measurements are expressed as a ratio of the control at baseline. Between-group comparisons were performed by one-way ANOVA followed by a Bonferroni multiple comparisons test. Level of significance was set at 0.05. Significance is indicated by different subscript letters or flagged as p<0.05, p<0.01 and p<0.001.
Results
Basal expression of ROS-producing enzymes and basal ROS production
ROS-producing enzymes of mammary epithelial cells were characterized in our culture cell conditions without leptin by q-PCR using previously-described primers (Table I) (42,43). Of the different ROS-producing systems studied, i.e. NADPH oxidase (NOX) isoenzymes 1, 2, 4 and 5, dual oxidase (DUOX) isoenzymes 1 and 2, and the endothelial and inducible nitric oxide synthase isoforms (eNOS and iNOS), only NADPH oxidase 5 (NOX5) was expressed in our cell models (Fig. 1A). NOX5 mRNA expression was 6-fold higher in neoplastic cells than in healthy cells (p<0.05, Fig. 1B).
Relative catalytic activity assayed by fluorescence in presence of NADPH and calcium showed similar profiles but was higher in neoplastic cells than HMEC (p<0.05, Fig. 1C). This observation was related to the difference in NOX5 expression. However, the basal cytosolic superoxide anion production was higher in neoplastic cells than in healthy cells (p<0.05, Fig. 1D). Basal total cellular ROS production (without leptin) assayed with DCF was similar in the HMEC and neoplastic cell models (Fig. 1E).
Leptin-induced ROS production in human mammary epithelial cell lines
The time-course of total cellular ROS production (DCF) in the culture medium in the presence of leptin showed an increase at 10 min, irrespective of cell model or leptin dose, (126±4%, 115±2% and 155±19% of basal production for HMEC, MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231, respectively; p<0.05, Fig. 2A). This short-term increase was followed by mid-term production for at least 1 h at 108% for HMEC and MCF-7 and at 135% for MDA-MB-231. This same increase in ROS production was confirmed by flow cytometry in each cell type (Fig. 2B). In presence of leptin, and whatever the cell model, total cellular ROS production significantly increased at 10 min (p<0.05, Fig. 2C) without any difference between the two concentrations used. Cytosolic superoxide anion production assayed by DHE increased at 10 min in the presence of leptin (119, 108 and 125% of basal production for HMEC, MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231, respectively; p<0.05, Fig. 2D).
NOX isoenzyme involvement evaluated by inhibition with DPI and ApoC
The putative implication of a NOX enzyme was assayed on cells in the presence of two well-known NOX inhibitors: DPI and ApoC (41). For each cell line, after incubation with leptin, DCF fluorescence signal increased in the presence of NADPH and calcium and was greater in neoplastic cells than in HMEC (p<0.05, Fig. 3). In presence of NOX inhibitor DPI (which is efficient on all the isoenzymes as a FAD inhibitor), the fluorescence signal was totally inhibited only with DPI and was not different from the blank signal (Fig. 3). In the presence of NOX inhibitor ApoC (which is efficient on NOX1, NOX2 and NOX4) at 40 µM, relative catalytic activity showed no change in each cell line. DPI, but not ApoC, was able to inhibit this ROS production stimulated by NADPH and calcium. Taken together, these results suggest that the ROS-producing system was a FAD enzyme, which needs NADPH and calcium at the exclusion of NOX1, NOX2 or NOX4. NOX5 should be the isoenzyme present in these cells.
NOX5 involvement in ROS production under leptin was confirmed using siRNA
To better understand and confirm the involvement of NOX5 in ROS production, we used siRNA against NOX5 (siNOX5) to inhibit its expression. Twenty-four hours of NOX5 silencing potently inhibited NOX5 mRNA expression under basal conditions (−74, −80 and −87% of mRNA expression in HMEC, MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231, respectively; p<0.001, Fig. 4A1, B1 and C1) and at both leptin concentrations. Surprisingly, despite the marked inhibition of mRNA expression, total cellular ROS production under basal conditions was not affected by the silencing in HMEC compared to neoplastic cells (−33 and −26% of inhibition in MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231, respectively; p<0.05 and p<0.01 Fig. 4A2, B2 and C2). Basal cytosolic superoxide anion production also seemed to be independent of NOX5, as only 25% of basal signal was inhibited in neoplastic cells (p<0.05 and p<0.01, respectively for MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231) and no change was observed in HMEC (Fig. 4A3, B3 and C3).
However, after NOX5 silencing, ROS production failed to increase whatever the leptin concentration and whatever the probe used for ROS detection. Total cellular ROS production under DCF decreased −22, −32 and −37% in HMEC, MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231, respectively, with 10 ng/ml of leptin (p<0.01, p<0.05, p<0.01, respectively; Fig. 4A2, B2 and C2). In the same experimental conditions, cytosolic superoxide anion production under DHE decreased −10, −8 and −29% in HMEC, MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231, respectively, with 10 ng/ml of leptin (p<0.01, p<0.05, p<0.01, respectively; Fig. 4A3, B3 and C3). In the three cell models, the increase in ROS production in the presence of leptin was completely suppressed by NOX5 siRNA treatment.
NOX5 activation by leptin was calcium flux-dependent
Calcium influx, which is a potent NOX5 activator (11), could be partly blocked by the calcium channel blocker verapamil. Whatever the cell model, leptin at both concentrations induced an increase in fluorescence of the calcium influx probe Fluo-3 (+19, +23 and +20% in HMEC, MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231, respectively; p<0.05, Fig. 5A1, B1 and C1) that was totally inhibited with verapamil. All the cell models were sensitive to verapamil, which is able to reduce calcium flux.
In the presence of verapamil, ROS production decreased in both basal and leptin conditions. However, basal ROS production seemed to be largely independent of calcium influx, since at least 45% of ROS production remained in the presence of the inhibitor verapamil. In the presence of leptin, verapamil decreased the signal measured for both total cellular ROS production and cytosolic superoxide anion production. In HMEC and MCF-7 cells, verapamil treatment decreased total ROS production and cytosolic superoxide anion production down to same level as basal conditions (p<0.01, Fig. 5A2, B2 and p<0.05, Fig. 5A3, B3, respectively). In MDA-MB-231 cells, verapamil treatment totally suppressed total cellular ROS production under leptin to the same level as basal conditions (p<0.01, Fig. 5C2), whereas cytosolic superoxide anion production remained higher than without leptin (p<0.05, Fig. 5C3).
Leptin downregulates NOX5 mRNA expression
Gene expression of the ROS production enzymes was determined at 1, 6 and 24 h by q-PCR after addition of 10 or 100 ng/ml of leptin. Only NOX5 mRNA expression showed a downregulation in the three cell models. In healthy HMEC, NOX5 expression was downregulated at 1, 6 and 24 h (p<0.001) whatever the leptin concentration, whereas neoplastic cells showed differences (Fig. 6A). In MCF-7 cells, NOX5 expression was weakly downregulated at 6 h (p<0.01) then increased at 24 h with both leptin concentrations (p<0.01; Fig. 6B). In MDA-MB-231 cells, whatever the leptin concentration, NOX5 expression showed no significant downregulation (Fig. 6C). None of the other NOX isoforms nor the NOS isoforms showed any detectable expression at any point in the 24-h experiment (data not shown).
Discussion
Leptin was able to modulate long-term ROS production after 24 h in mammary epithelial cells by modifying the mitochondrial function (33). However, mammary epithelial cells contain several NOX isoenzymes (10,44) and there is very little data on whether leptin can modulate them. We thus focused our study on short-term ROS production and the potent role of NOX enzymes in the first hour of leptin stimulation at two concentrations (10 ng/ml mimicking normal body mass index (BMI), 100 ng/ml mimicking obesity) on three mammary cell lines. These cell lines represented the major types of mammary epithelial cells i.e. HMEC for healthy cells, MCF-7 for estrogen sensitive neoplastic cells and MDA-MB-231 for metastatic triple-negative cells (31). Whatever the cell line, leptin briefly increased ROS production, which remained significantly higher than basal level for more than 1 h. This study demonstrates for the first time that leptin is involved in short-term ROS production in epithelial mammary cells. The results are in agreement with previous work linking leptin to oxidative stress in other cell types such as endothelial cells, hepatic epithelial cells, cardiac myofibroblasts and ovarian cells (22,23,25,35). However, leptin did not present a difference of effect despite our hypothesis on hyperleptinemia due to obesity. One of leptin regulation mechanism is the internalization of the complex leptin/receptor (26). In that case, cells became insensitive to leptin signal until the recycling of the receptor. As we used synchronized cells during a short time period, this mechanism could be pre-eminent in our in vitro experiments and could explain the lack of difference between leptin doses.
The NOX isoenzyme family is one of the most potent generators of ROS in cells (45). These enzymes are clearly involved in many pathological situations (46), especially carcinogenesis (47). Until recently, there was only scant data on the NOX isoenzyme family and the ROS production system in mammary epithelial cells (9), despite the important role of NOX isoforms as cellular signalling pathways (7). In our conditions, only NOX5 mRNA presented significant expression levels in the three cell lines. NOX5 has been studied less than other NOX isoenzymes (11,47) and its biological functions remain unclear, especially in cancer (48,49). These data confirm the expression profile previously found in mammary tumor cell lines such as MCF-7 where NOX5 is the major NOX isoform expressed (9) and in breast tumors where NOX5 isoenzyme expression is positive in approximately 60% of tumors assessed (47). However, at variance with previous papers, the other NOX isoforms such as NOX2 (10), NOX3, or NOX4 (44), which are less expressed in breast cancer cells than NOX5, never presented significant mRNA expression during our short-time-window (less than 24 h) conditions.
In order to confirm the implication of a NOX enzyme in ROS production, we first assayed two pharmacological NOX inhibitors (50): DPI, efficient on all NOX isoenzymes as well as other FAD enzymes and ApoC which interacts only with NOX1, 2 and 4 complexes (51). In our experiment, DPI but not ApoC was able to inhibit the short-term ROS production induced by leptin. These results argue for a FAD-dependent ROS production with NOX1, 2 and 4 apparently ruled out. Taken together, our findings suggest that NOX5 is likely the isoenzyme involved in this short-term response.
Secondly, we used siRNA against NOX5 to confirm its potent role. After 24 h of siNOX5 treatment, basal total cellular ROS production in absence of leptin partly decreased in the neoplastic cell lines but not in HMEC cells despite a significant decrease in NOX5 mRNA expression. Cytosolic superoxide anion production remained unchanged whatever the cell lines used. These results suggest that other potential ROS sources, such as mitochondrial oxidases (33,44) or the respiratory chain (52), are involved in basal ROS production in these cells, as DCF was able to detect ROS coming from mitochondria. It could also be hypothesized that NOX5 protein turnover was slower than the decrease in mRNA expression, especially in HMEC cells, which presented slower growth. However, in presence of leptin, siNOX5 treatment abolished short-term ROS production whatever the cell line, both in terms of total cellular ROS and cytosolic superoxide anion. These results confirm that NOX5 is involved in part of the short-term leptin-induced ROS production.
The NOX5 complex features two domains for calcium binding which acts as the main regulator of its activity (11). In a final step of our experiment, we focused on the effect of calcium flux on short-term ROS production. In the presence of leptin, and as previously described (53,54), we showed a calcium influx in the presence of Fluo-3 probe. Verapamil partly inhibited the calcium influx in the three cell lines, as Fluo-3 fluorescence only decreased by 30%. In the presence of verapamil and leptin, total ROS production and cytosolic superoxide anion production decreased to under basal levels in both healthy HMEC and neoplastic MCF-7 cells. In MDA-MB-231 cells, only total cellular ROS production under leptin was suppressed down to basal levels by verapamil, whereas cytosolic superoxide anion production remained higher than in the basal condition without leptin. These data confirm that a calcium-dependent pathway is involved in short-term ROS production under leptin (53), which reinforces the idea that NOX5 plays a potent role in HMEC and MCF-7 cells but suggests another source of superoxide anion in MDA-MB-231 cells. However, as no other NOX isoenzyme was expressed in this short-time window, the identity of this other source remains unclear.
As the main long-term regulator of NOX5 is its mRNA expression level (49), we analyzed NOX5 mRNA expression after leptin stimulation in the three cell lines which showed different responses. In HMEC cells, NOX5 mRNA expression decreased from 1 to 24 h at both concentrations of leptin, whereas the neoplastic cells did not show this downregulation pattern. After short decreases at 1 and 6 h, in MCF-7 cells, NOX5 expression increased higher than the basal level at 24 h. In MDA-MB-231 cells, NOX5 expression was not modified during the 24 h time-window whatever the leptin concentration. In healthy cells, a feedback loop seems to exist when it is altered in MCF-7 cells, resulting in a higher mRNA expression at 24 h. The metastasis of MDA-MB-231 cells lose this feedback loop for NOX5 expression, that could be related to their more aggressive phenotype and their constitutive oxidative stress (55). The downregulation of NOX5 expression under leptin appears to be less effective in neoplastic cells and could be linked to the adverse effect of obesity in breast cancer risk (26,29).
Herein, for the first time, leptin is demonstrated to induce short-term ROS production in both healthy and neoplastic human mammary epithelial cells for the two doses used (physio and obesity). This short-time ROS production under leptin appeared to be partly due to NOX5 as analysis of the mRNA expression levels of NOX-family members (FAD-dependent enzymes) showed a unique and significant NOX5 expression in our conditions. Moreover, calcium influx inhibition by verapamil and FAD-dependent enzyme activity inhibition by DPI prevented ROS production that reinforce the NOX5 implication hypothesis. The main difference between the three mammary epithelial cell lines concerns the feedback loop of NOX5 mRNA expression which is less effective in neoplastic than in healthy cells. This lack of regulation in the neoplastic cells could be associated to the in-tumor major re-oxidative stress and related to the neoplastic processes in carcinogenesis (55). Taken together, our results point to the role for leptin in ROS production via NOX5 isoenzyme in mammary epithelial cells. This leptin ROS stimulation could be a potent actor in neoplastic cell signalling and could contribute to the increased risk of breast cancer associated to obesity (32,48,56).
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by a PhD fellowship (Sinda Mahbouli) from the Conseil Régional d'Auvergne and the European research fund (FEDER). We thank Jacques Nunès for his valuable advice and expert knowledge on cell signaling and cancer cell biochemistry.
Glossary
Abbreviations
Abbreviations:
|
ROS |
reactive oxygen species |
|
NOX |
NADPH oxidase |
|
DUOX |
dual oxidases |
|
HMEC |
human mammary epithelial cells |
|
NOS |
NO synthases |
|
q-PCR |
quantitative real-time PCR |
|
DCF |
dichlorofluorescein |
|
RFU |
relative fluorescence unit |
|
RLU |
relative luminescence units |
|
siRNA |
small interfering RNA |
|
DPI |
diphenyliodonium |
|
ApoC |
apocynin |
|
BMI |
body mass index |
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