COVID‑19 and post‑traumatic stress disorder: The perfect ‘storm’ for mental health (Review)
- Authors:
- Published online on: August 11, 2021 https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2021.10596
- Article Number: 1162
-
Copyright: © Giannopoulou et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of Creative Commons Attribution License.
Abstract
1. Introduction
Since late December, 2019, humanity has been facing an unprecedented situation due to the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak which began in Wuhan, China. COVID-19 is a highly contagious disease, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which has evolved into an ongoing pandemic (1). The World Health Organization declared this viral infection as a public health emergency of international concern on January 31, 2020 (https://bit.ly/2Tud4mX) and as a pandemic on March 11, 2020 (https://bit.ly/3qF3IRA). Eighteen months into this unprecedented and rapidly evolving situation, according to the latest data, the pandemic has led to >195 million cases with confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection and to >4.1 million deaths worldwide (https://bit.ly/2TktAGl). Despite the extensive commitment from the global biopharmaceutical industry to address COVID-19 and its rapid development, and the worldwide distribution of several vaccines with demonstrated efficacy in preventing symptomatic infections and COVID-19 related admissions to hospital and deaths (2), there is currently no available medication for the effective treatment of the disease; thus, clinical management relies on symptomatic relief, supportive care and isolation. There is, also, uncertainty as regards the long-lasting immunity and potential long-term adverse effects of the vaccines, the duration of the pandemic and the extent of the effects of the pandemic on the mental health of the world's population. Moreover, the precautionary restrictive measures taken to control the spread of the virus, ranging from social distancing to strict lockdown regulations, have created an insecure and stressful environment at all levels, health, economic and social (3). Stressful situations, such as the intense insecurity of a contagious life-threating virus, fear of being infected or having contracted the virus, being hospitalized with less or more severe COVID-19, being admitted to an intensive care unit (ICU), the loss of a loved one, mandatory and drastic changes to everyday life with uncertain financial and future prospects, alongside insufficient coping skills and stress management strategies (4), have all contributed to posing a significant burden on the mental health of individuals (5-7). These situations and may also be perceived as traumatic events (8). Studies have suggested that health-related pandemic disasters may lead to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptomatology (9-11), a mental health impact described as the ‘second tsunami’ in the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic (12). The COVID-19 pandemic is a potentially traumatic event given its characteristics (unpredictable, extreme, prolonged, based on an unknown/unfamiliar danger, posing threat of death). However, according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), only some individuals may meet the qualifying trauma exposure criteria for PTSD as a result of the pandemic and these are the following: Those who have themselves suffered from severe COVID-19 illness and potential death; individuals who, as family members and health care workers, have witnessed the suffering and death of others; individuals who have learned of the death or risk of death of a family member or friend due to the virus; and individuals who have experienced extreme exposure to aversive details (e.g., first responders and hospital personnel). The DSM-5 diagnosis of PTSD requires the presence of symptoms from the following four symptom clusters: Intrusion symptoms associated with traumatic event(s); persistent avoidance of stimuli associated with traumatic event(s); negative alterations in cognition and mood associated with traumatic event(s); and marked alterations in arousal and reactivity associated with traumatic event(s) commencing or becoming more severe following the occurrence of traumatic event(s) (13).
2. Neuropsychiatric manifestations of SARS-CoV-2
An association between psychological distress and the neuropathological manifestations of the disease has already been suggested, as patients with COVID-19 have consistently been shown to exhibit significantly higher levels of anxiety, depression and stress-related disorders when compared with non-COVID-19 subjects (14). Indeed, apart from the prominent respiratory symptoms, SARS-CoV-2 has been shown to induce neurological and neuropsychiatric manifestations that vary both in intensity and duration; neurological symptoms include headaches, dizziness, hyposmia or anosmia, ageusia, ataxia, seizures, encephalitis, encephalopathy, sensory impairment, cranial neuropathies, acute cerebrovascular disease, para-infectious peripheral nerve-related disorders, such as Guillain-Barré and Miller Fisher syndromes, and in certain cases, neuronal autoimmunity (15,16). Neuropsychiatric symptoms include cognitive decline, confusion, delirium, dementia, insomnia, anxiety, depression and psychotic spectrum disorders (17-19).
Viral neurotropism has already been documented for coronaviruses SARS-CoV-1 and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS-CoV). However, there is no sufficient evidence to also support the neuro-invasive potential of SARS-CoV-2 (16,19,20); most arguably, the virus interacts with the angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor on host cells to facilitate entry. Neural cells expressing ACE2 are found in circumventricular organs that are involved in cardiovascular and respiratory regulation, and have little or no protection of the blood brain barrier (BBB), thus representing central nervous system (CNS) sites that are quite vulnerable to viral infection (18). Clinical presentations of PTSD, depression, pain disorder, panic disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder in survivors with SARS-CoV-1 have been shown to be markedly increased at 31-50 months post-infection, as compared with their prevalence pre-infection (19,21). Similarly, patients with COVID-19 have been found to present with a significantly higher incidence of an altered mental status, mood disorders, insomnia, anxiety and dementia, while the risk of developing a post-infectious psychiatric disorder appears to be ~2-fold higher when compared with pre-infection rates (22-24). In individuals with a predisposition to stress-related disorders or with pre-existing neuropsychiatric conditions, SARS-CoV-2 can accelerate the development of significant psychiatric disorders, with significant implications for optimal medical and psychiatric care (14,18).
Even though the exact mechanisms of COVID-19-associated neuropsychiatric symptoms are not well known, neurotropic activity manifests as a viral infection of the nervous tissue and has been postulated to occur via two possible pathways: i) A hematogenous route, which may include the infection of BBB endothelial cells, infection of the blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier epithelial cells, or via myeloid cell trafficking, a process that essentially utilizes inflammatory cells as Trojan horses to gain access to the CNS; ii) a neuronal transport route which uses retrograde axonal transport through the olfactory, the respiratory and the enteric nervous system (15,25). CNS invasion may also occur via deregulated inflammatory responses, such as cytokine dysregulation and neuroinflammation, which may increase BBB permeability, thereby facilitating viral entry, or as a secondary effect of other organ system failure, such as cardiorespiratory failure, or secondary to the embolic process triggered by SARS-CoV-2 (15,18,25). Furthermore, as certain anti-viral drugs, including chloroquine, have already been shown to cause CNS-related adverse events, both neurological and neuropsychiatric, it is possible that, in the context of COVID-19, such treatments may contribute towards increasing neuronal stress and neuroinflammation, ultimately causing neuronal damage that is associated with neuropsychiatric disturbances (14,26). A more-detailed overview of the direct and indirect pathways of SARS-CoV-2 CNS invasion is illustrated in Fig. 1.
3. COVID-19 trauma and post-traumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents
The risk of the negative psychosocial effects of the pandemic on the psychological well-being of young individuals has been highlighted (27,28). The majority of children and adolescents exposed to traumatic events develop short-term psychological distress (29); however, in some, particularly in those living in families facing a prolonged complex and stressful situation, symptoms do not remit spontaneously and instead become clinically significant, persistent and impairing (30).
In the context of prior pandemics, a study on families who were quarantined due to SARS or the H1N1 influenza virus and based on parental reports, PTSD was found in 30% of the confined children and in 25% of the parents; this indicated the high traumatic potential of social isolation and living in conditions of constant fear of the disease spreading (31). Longer durations of quarantine have been shown to be associated with an increased prevalence of PTSD-related symptoms. Indirect or direct exposure to another individual with a diagnosis of SARS has also been shown to be associated with PTSD and depressive symptoms (10). In addition, a study on home-quarantined youth in China during the first month of the COVID-19 outbreak revealed that 12.8% of the participants had traumatic stress levels consistent with PTSD, exhibiting an association with negative coping styles (32). Furthermore, a recent systematic review and meta-analysis estimated the pooled prevalence of PTSD to be 20.7% among Chinese children (33).
Although the COVID-19 pandemic, as mentioned above, is not associated with the development of PTSD in everyone, the pandemic situation increases the risk of multiple traumatic experiences and complex trauma (34). For children living in socially disadvantaged environments characterized by poverty, the lack of access to developmentally appropriate resources, low levels of stimulation and responsive care, or inadequate supervision, the pandemic situation, by aggravated circumstances, may become an adverse childhood experience, generating toxic levels of stress (28).
There is growing neuroscientific evidence to document that early adverse childhood experiences, including prenatal stress and stress throughout childhood, have marked and long-term effects on the development of neurobiological systems (i.e., fronto-limbic circuitry), thereby ‘programming’ subsequent increased stress reactivity and weaker emotion regulation (35). This altered neurobiological response to stress may confer vulnerability to the development of chronic trauma and stress-related disorders, such as PTSD, anxiety, mood and attachment disorders, memory and learning problems, as well as other psychopathological conditions (36).
The COVID-19 pandemic has been described as a ‘perfect storm’ with exposure to known risks and the lack of support affecting the mental health of young individuals and their families (37). First, prolonged lockdown and severe financial difficulties necessitate changes in family dynamics, which may trigger the use of dysfunctional caregiver coping strategies (e.g., alcohol or substance abuse), family discord, negative parent-child interactions, intrafamilial violence and child abuse (38-40). For young children, unsafe living conditions, in parallel with delays in scheduled healthcare visits and developmental checks, the suspension or interruption of interventions for developmental delays (e.g., language), lost access to child care and early education programs, the disruption of support offered by social services and the loss of supportive social networks, may adversely affect brain development, leading to long-term negative health outcomes (41). Second, for school-aged children and adolescents affected by adverse experiences in early life, i.e., neglect and child abuse or exposure to violence, automatic physiological responses are likely to be reactivated and may further increase the risk of developing PTSD and stress-related disorders. Third, exposure to increased levels of depression, anxiety and psychological distress in adults/caregivers (42), which are potential factors of adversity for cohabiting children and adolescents, may lead to secondary trauma and persistent or delayed-onset distress symptoms. Fourth, given that adolescence is a particularly stressful period due to the occurrence of related developmental changes, such as a marked increase in social sensitivity and interpersonal stress coupled with low tolerance to frustration, a heightened emotional reactivity and a low capacity to effectively engage in cognitive and emotion regulation (43,44), the COVID-19 pandemic, and in particular the prolonged lockdown, may increase the levels of stress in adolescents. Social isolation, the lack of face-to-face contact with peers and teachers due to school closures, a change in daily behaviors (decreased physical activity, increased screen time, irregular sleep patterns and less appropriate diets) and concern for the economic future of their family and country, are among some of the identified pandemic-related stressors that generate psychological repercussions in adolescents (45). A recent study examining the impact of the pandemic, and its related restrictions, on the emotional health of Canadian adolescents found that concerns related to COVID-19, difficulties with online learning and increased family conflict were associated with higher levels of depression and anxiety, whereas feeling socially connected during the COVID-19 lockdown protected the adolescents against poor mental health (46). Given that different types of trauma exposure (e.g., interpersonal or non-interpersonal) probably have differential effects on adolescent cognition and traumatic- and stress-related symptoms, as well as PTSD onset (47-50), and that adolescents rely on peer connections and relationships for their emotional support and social development (51), it is argued that social isolation and social distancing may be an important adversity factor for developing brain systems engaged in social and emotional processes (44). Although it may take years and numerus research studies to fully understand the sequelae of the COVID-19 pandemic during different developmental stages, available data have consistently demonstrated an association of several COVID-19-related stressors with mental health outcomes. Future studies are required to explore these stressors in conjunction with protective factors and prospective changes in mental health to identify which of these may influence both the typical trajectory of COVID-19-related traumatic experience and the development of psychopathology in the long-term, as well as to determine the underlying mechanisms.
4. Post-traumatic stress disorder and COVID-19 survivors
Scientific evidence from previous epidemics indicates that a severe physical illness can lead to the development of various psychiatric conditions, including, among others, PTSD symptoms following recovery. According to a previous meta-analysis, 17-44% of critical illness survivors, particularly those who required hospitalization and/or admission to an ICU, reported clinically significant PTSD symptoms (52). Due to the fact that the severity of the medical condition seems to be a predicting factor for the development of PTSD symptomatology, the early identification of vulnerable and high-risk patients seems a perquisite for timely effective interventions (53).
A previous literature review on past coronavirus outbreaks, suggested a high likelihood of COVID-19 survivors developing psychiatric symptoms and disorders, most notably PTSD symptoms (54). Even among individuals who do not meet the full diagnostic criteria for PTSD, post-traumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) have also been shown to be associated with functional impairment (55). As also previously indicated, 42% of individuals who survived MERS presented scores which were above the clinical cut-off for PTSD at 1 year following the outbreak, and almost 26% of individuals who survived SARS met the full diagnostic criteria for PTSD at 30 months following the outbreak (56,57).
In addition, hospitalization is a potentially traumatic experience, particularly in severe cases (58). In spite of this, the vast amount of available research on COVID-19 and mental health is focused on health professionals and the general population. Studies involving hospitalized patients have mainly focused on treatments for the disease (59) and limited information has been reported regarding potential mental health outcomes. Hospitalization, in general, and more specifically, the admission to an ICU may impose a significant burden on the mental health of patients and may lead to the development of diverse conditions, including PTSD and other trauma- and stress-related disorders. Indeed, the highest PTSD rates have been found among patients who had experienced a life-threatening situation in an ICU (14-59%), while the lowest rates were childbirth-related (1.7-5.6%) (60). Hospitalization likely increases the perception of how critical an event is for the lives of individuals, which is usually associated with increased post-traumatic stress (61). In addition, exposure to the severity and life-threatening aspects of the infection may also lead to higher levels of stress and associated reactions (62). This is reasonable, as the development of more severe symptoms may result in an enhanced experience of threat, particularly for symptoms such as dyspnea. Indeed, symptom load was associated with higher levels of post-traumatic stress reactions (6). Patients in the ICU have been found to experience traumatic stress related to both the severity of symptoms and the invasiveness of the medical procedures, which may lead to the development of PTSD symptomatology. In particular, respiratory symptoms can cause significant distress and fear of respiratory failure (63). Other factors potentially related to PTSD symptomatology include a fear of death, pain from medical interventions, such as endotracheal intubation, a limited ability to communicate and feelings of a loss of control (64). A study among hospitalized patients with COVID-19 indicated that almost 20% of the participants developed significant PTSS within 1 month following hospitalization, which was significantly associated with the length of the hospitalization period and the resulting feelings of social disconnection and mental exhaustion (65). Another study reported a 13.2% prevalence of PTSD among hospitalized patients who were affected by reports of negative news, had a greater exposure to traumatic experiences and lower levels of perceived social support (59). These rates are lower than the prevalence reported by studies on patients with similar infectious diseases, although higher than those in other groups, such as medical residents and medical staff, during the COVID-19 pandemic (66). These findings suggest that hospitalized patients with COVID-19 infection may present with the most adverse mental health issues during this pandemic.
In addition, it has been suggested that a sub-threshold diagnosis of PTSD can be considered a risk factor for more severe mental health outcomes, and more specifically, with an increased risk of depression, suicidal ideation, alcohol consumption and other comorbidities (67). Notably, male gender seems to be a significant protective factor against PTSD. On the other hand, the strongest predictor for the development of PTSD among hospitalized patients with COVID-19 infection appears to be a pre-existing mental health condition (mainly anxiety and depressive disorders), followed by obesity, which similar to chronic pulmonary disease, lead to an increased risk of developing severe disease (58). PTSD, depression and anxiety disorders are often comorbid, linked to high levels of general distress in the acute stage of trauma and are described as a ‘symptom network’ (59,68).
To summarize, the severity of the medical condition has the potential to determine the future risk of patients to develop PTSD. Research into COVID-19-related PTSD symptomatology and its determinants is of paramount importance in identifying possible modifiable risk factors and vulnerable patients, as well as in evidence-informed decision-making interventions (53). Moreover, effective professional mental health services should be designed to support the psychological wellbeing of inpatients with COVID-19, and particularly those who required hospitalization and/or ICU care.
5. Conclusion
The present review demonstrates that COVID-19 has a substantial impact on mental health and poses a significant risk for the development of trauma-related disorders, including PTSD among individuals who are most vulnerable, such as children, adolescents and COVID-19 survivors (who required hospitalization and/or ICU admission). Therefore, the prompt identification of at-risk populations, early intervention and the effective management of PTSD is of utmost importance. A multi-disciplinary approach should be adopted aiming at enhancing the resilience and coping mechanisms of different sub-groups through early identification, prevention and the implementation of intervention strategies. Lessons learnt from past pandemics together with the ongoing research on COVID-19 and its mental health consequences highlight the need for evidence-based targeted and proactive mental health interventions aiming at minimizing the potential risks and vulnerabilities.
Acknowledgements
Not applicable.
Funding
Funding: No funding was received.
Availability of data and materials
Not applicable.
Authors' contributions
IG, SG, EK, MA, IT, SK wrote the original draft, edited and critically revised the manuscript. ER, KT, EA, NS, VZ and DAS critically revised and edited the manuscript. IG and ER confirm the authenticity of all the raw data. All authors substantially contributed to the conception, writing and revision of the work and approved the final content of the manuscript.
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.
Patient consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
DAS is the Editor-in-Chief for the journal, but had no personal involvement in the reviewing process, or any influence in terms of adjudicating on the final decision, for this article. The other authors declare that they have no competing interests.
References
Li Q, Guan X, Wu P, Wang X, Zhou L, Tong Y, Ren R, Leung KSM, Lau EHY, Wong JY, et al: Early Transmission Dynamics in Wuhan, China, of Novel Coronavirus-Infected Pneumonia. N Engl J Med. 382:1199–1207. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Blumental S and Debré P: Challenges and Issues of Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Vaccines. Front Med (Lausanne). 8(664179)2021.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Tsamakis K, Tsiptsios D, Ouranidis A, Mueller C, Schizas D, Terniotis C, Nikolakakis N, Tyros G, Kympouropoulos S, Lazaris A, et al: COVID-19 and its consequences on mental health (Review). Exp Ther Med. 21(244)2021.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Agorastos A, Tsamakis K, Solmi M, Correll CU and Bozikas VP: The need for holistic, longitudinal and comparable, real-time assessment of the emotional, behavioral and societal impact of the COVID-19 pandemic across nations. Psychiatriki. 32:15–18. 2021.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Einvik G, Dammen T, Ghanima W, Heir T and Stavem K: Prevalence and Risk Factors for Post-Traumatic Stress in Hospitalized and Non-Hospitalized COVID-19 Patients. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 18(2079)2021.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Gautam M, Kaur M and Mahr G: COVID-19-Associated Psychiatric Symptoms in Health Care Workers: Viewpoint From Internal Medicine and Psychiatry Residents. Psychosomatics. 61:579–581. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Tsamakis K, Triantafyllis AS, Tsiptsios D, Spartalis E, Mueller C, Tsamakis C, Chaidou S, Spandidos DA, Fotis L, Economou M, et al: COVID-19 related stress exacerbates common physical and mental pathologies and affects treatment (Review). Exp Ther Med. 20:159–162. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Zhang L, Pan R, Cai Y and Pan J: The Prevalence of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in the General Population during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review and Single-Arm Meta-Analysis. Psychiatry Investig. 18:426–433. 2021.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Jeong H, Yim HW, Song YJ, Ki M, Min JA, Cho J and Chae JH: Mental health status of people isolated due to Middle East Respiratory Syndrome. Epidemiol Health. 38(e2016048)2016.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Hawryluck L, Gold WL, Robinson S, Pogorski S, Galea S and Styra R: SARS control and psychological effects of quarantine, Toronto, Canada. Emerg Infect Dis. 10:1206–1212. 2004.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Asukai N, Kato H, Kawamura N, Kim Y, Yamamoto K, Kishimoto J, Miyake Y and Nishizono-Maher A: Reliability and validity of the Japanese-language version of the impact of event scale-revised (IES-R-J): Four studies of different traumatic events. J Nerv Ment Dis. 190:175–182. 2002.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Dutheil F, Mondillon L and Navel V: PTSD as the second tsunami of the SARS-Cov-2 pandemic. Psychol Med. 51:1773–1774. 2021.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
American Psychiatric Association (APA): Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5®). APA, Washington, DC, 2013. | |
Jansen van Vuren E, Steyn SF, Brink CB, Möller M, Viljoen FP and Harvey BH: The neuropsychiatric manifestations of COVID-19: Interactions with psychiatric illness and pharmacological treatment. Biomed Pharmacother. 135(111200)2021.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Yapici-Eser H, Koroglu YE, Oztop-Cakmak O, Keskin O, Gursoy A and Gursoy-Ozdemir Y: Neuropsychiatric Symptoms of COVID-19 Explained by SARS-CoV-2 Proteins' Mimicry of Human Protein Interactions. Front Hum Neurosci. 15(656313)2021.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Orsini A, Corsi M, Santangelo A, Riva A, Peroni D, Foiadelli T, Savasta S and Striano P: Challenges and management of neurological and psychiatric manifestations in SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) patients. Neurol Sci. 41:2353–2366. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Troyer EA, Kohn JN and Hong S: Are we facing a crashing wave of neuropsychiatric sequelae of COVID-19? Neuropsychiatric symptoms and potential immunologic mechanisms. Brain Behav Immun. 87:34–39. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Steardo L Jr, Steardo L and Verkhratsky A: Psychiatric face of COVID-19. Transl Psychiatry. 10(261)2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Nakamura ZM, Nash RP, Laughon SL and Rosenstein DL: Neuropsychiatric Complications of COVID-19. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 23(25)2021.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Rogers JP, Chesney E, Oliver D, Pollak TA, McGuire P, Fusar-Poli P, Zandi MS, Lewis G and David AS: Psychiatric and neuropsychiatric presentations associated with severe coronavirus infections: A systematic review and meta-analysis with comparison to the COVID-19 pandemic. Lancet Psychiatry. 7:611–627. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Lam MH, Wing YK, Yu MW, Leung CM, Ma RC, Kong AP, So WY, Fong SY and Lam SP: Mental morbidities and chronic fatigue in severe acute respiratory syndrome survivors: Long-term follow-up. Arch Intern Med. 169:2142–2147. 2009.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Taquet M, Luciano S, Geddes JR and Harrison PJ: Bidirectional associations between COVID-19 and psychiatric disorder: Retrospective cohort studies of 62,354 COVID-19 cases in the USA. Lancet Psychiatry. 8:130–140. 2021.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Ng JH, Sun A, Je HS and Tan EK: Unravelling Pathophysiology of Neurological and Psychiatric Complications of COVID-19 Using Brain Organoids. Neuroscientist: May 26, 2021 (Epub ahead of print). | |
Guo Q, Zheng Y, Shi J, Wang J, Li G, Li C, Fromson JA, Xu Y, Liu X, Xu H, et al: Immediate psychological distress in quarantined patients with COVID-19 and its association with peripheral inflammation: A mixed-method study. Brain Behav Immun. 88:17–27. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Rege S: COVID-19 and the Brain-Pathogenesis and Neuropsychiatric Manifestations of SARS-CoV-2 CNS Involvement. Psych Scene hub, 2020. https://psychscenehub.com/psychinsights/covid-19-and-the-brain-pathogenesis-and-neuropsychiatric-manifestations-of-sars-cov-2-cns-involvement/. Accessed May 17, 2020. | |
Juurlink DN: Safety considerations with chloroquine, hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin in the management of SARS-CoV-2 infection. CMAJ. 192:E450–E453. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Dalton L, Rapa E and Stein A: Protecting the psychological health of children through effective communication about COVID-19. Lancet Child Adolesc Health. 4:346–347. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Holmes EA, O'Connor RC, Perry VH, Tracey I, Wessely S, Arseneault L, Ballard C, Christensen H, Cohen Silver R, Everall I, et al: Multidisciplinary research priorities for the COVID-19 pandemic: A call for action for mental health science. Lancet Psychiatry. 7:547–560. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Danese A, Smith P, Chitsabesan P and Dubicka B: Child and adolescent mental health amidst emergencies and disasters. Br J Psychiatry. 216:159–162. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Yule W, Perrin S and Smith P: Traumatic events and post-traumatic stress disorder. In: Cambridge child and adolescent psychiatry. Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents: Research, assessment and intervention. Silverman WK and Treffers PDA (eds). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp212-234, 2001. | |
Sprang G and Silman M: Posttraumatic stress disorder in parents and youth after health-related disasters. Disaster Med Public Health Prep. 7:105–110. 2013.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Liang L, Gao T, Ren H, Cao R, Qin Z, Hu Y, Li C and Mei S: Post-traumatic stress disorder and psychological distress in Chinese youths following the COVID-19 emergency. J Health Psychol. 25:1164–1175. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Ma Z, Idris S, Zhang Y, Zewen L, Wali A, Ji Y, Pan Q and Baloch Z: The impact of COVID-19 pandemic outbreak on education and mental health of Chinese children aged 7-15 years: An online survey. BMC Pediatr. 21(95)2021.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Vézina D, Brend D and Beeman I: When it counts the most: Trauma-informed care and the COVID-19 global pandemic. Dev Child Welf. 2:172–179. 2020. | |
Herringa RJ: Trauma, PTSD, and the Developing Brain. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 19(69)2017.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
De Bellis MD and Zisk A: The biological effects of childhood trauma. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am. 23:185–222, vii. 2014.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Danese A and Smith P: Debate: Recognising and responding to the mental health needs of young people in the era of COVID-19. Child Adolesc Ment Health. 25:169–170. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Brooks SK, Webster RK, Smith LE, Woodland L, Wessely S, Greenberg N and Rubin GJ: The psychological impact of quarantine and how to reduce it: Rapid review of the evidence. Lancet. 395:912–920. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Wang G, Zhang Y, Zhao J, Zhang J and Jiang F: Mitigate the effects of home confinement on children during the COVID-19 outbreak. Lancet. 395:945–947. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Abdo C, Miranda EP, Santos CS, Júnior JB and Bernardo WM: Domestic violence and substance abuse during COVID19: A systematic review. Indian J Psychiatry. 62 (Suppl 3):S337–S342. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Yoshikawa H, Wuermli AJ, Britto PR, Dreyer B, Leckman JF, Lye SJ, Ponguta LA, Richter LM and Stein A: Effects of the Global Coronavirus Disease-2019 Pandemic on Early Childhood Development: Short- and Long-Term Risks and Mitigating Program and Policy Actions. J Pediatr. 223:188–193. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Gao J, Zheng P, Jia Y, Chen H, Mao Y, Chen S, Wang Y, Fu H and Dai J: Mental health problems and social media exposure during COVID-19 outbreak. PLoS One. 15(e0231924)2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Bailen NH, Green LM and Thompson RJ: Understanding Emotion in Adolescents: A Review of Emotional Frequency, Intensity, Instability, and Clarity. Emot Rev. 11:63–73. 2019. | |
Somerville LH, Jones RM and Casey BJ: A time of change: Behavioral and neural correlates of adolescent sensitivity to appetitive and aversive environmental cues. Brain Cogn. 72:124–133. 2010.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Guessoum SB, Lachal J, Radjack R, Carretier E, Minassian S, Benoit L and Moro MR: Adolescent psychiatric disorders during the COVID-19 pandemic and lockdown. Psychiatry Res. 291(113264)2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Ellis WE, Dumas TM and Forbes LM: Physically isolated but socially connected: Psychological adjustment and stress among adolescents during the initial COVID-19 crisis. Can J Behav Sci. 52:177–187. 2020. | |
Luthra R, Abramovitz R, Greenberg R, Schoor A, Newcorn J, Schmeidler J, Levine P, Nomura Y and Chemtob CM: Relationship between type of trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder among urban children and adolescents. J Interpers Violence. 24:1919–1927. 2009.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
McLaughlin KA, Fairbank JA, Gruber MJ, Jones RT, Osofsky JD, Pfefferbaum B, Sampson NA and Kessler RC: Trends in serious emotional disturbance among youths exposed to Hurricane Katrina. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 49:990–1000, 1000.e1-1000.e2. 2010.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Nuttman-Shwartz O: Behavioral Responses in Youth Exposed to Natural Disasters and Political Conflict. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 21(42)2019.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Nöthling J, Simmons C, Suliman S and Seedat S: Trauma type as a conditional risk factor for posttraumatic stress disorder in a referred clinic sample of adolescents. Compr Psychiatry. 76:138–146. 2017.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Ellis W, Zarbatany L, Chen X, Kinal M and Boyko L: Peer Groups as a Context for School Misconduct: The Moderating Role of Group Interactional Style. Child Dev. 89:248–263. 2018.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Parker AM, Sricharoenchai T, Raparla S, Schneck KW, Bienvenu OJ and Needham DM: Posttraumatic stress disorder in critical illness survivors: A metaanalysis. Crit Care Med. 43:1121–1129. 2015.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Badenoch J, Cross B, Hafeez D, Song J, Watson C, Butler M, Nicholson TR and Rooney AG: The SARS-COV-neuro collaboration: Post-traumatic symptoms after COVID-19 may (or may not) reflect disease severity. Psychol Med: Nov 27, 2020 (Epub ahead of print). | |
Kaseda ET and Levine AJ: Post-traumatic stress disorder: A differential diagnostic consideration for COVID-19 survivors. Clin Neuropsychol. 34:1498–1514. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Shalev A, Liberzon I and Marmar C: Post-traumatic stress disorder. N Engl J Med. 376:2459–2469. 2017.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Lee AM, Wong JG, McAlonan GM, Cheung V, Cheung C, Sham PC, Chu CM, Wong PC, Tsang KW and Chua SE: Stress and psychological distress among SARS survivors 1 year after the outbreak. Can J Psychiatry. 52:233–240. 2007.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Mak IWC, Chu CM, Pan PC, Yiu MGC, Ho SC and Chan VL: Risk factors for chronic post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in SARS survivors. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 32:590–598. 2010.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Tarsitani L, Vassalini P, Koukopoulos A, Borrazzo C, Alessi F, Di Nicolantonio C, Serra R, Alessandri F, Ceccarelli G, Mastroianni CM, et al: Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Among COVID-19 Survivors at 3-Month Follow-up After Hospital Discharge. J Gen Intern Med. 36:1702–1707. 2021.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Chen Y, Huang X, Zhang C, An Y, Liang Y, Yang Y and Liu Z: Prevalence and predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder, depression and anxiety among hospitalized patients with coronavirus disease 2019 in China. BMC Psychiatry. 21(80)2021.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Tedstone JE and Tarrier N: Posttraumatic stress disorder following medical illness and treatment. Clin Psychol Rev. 23:409–448. 2003.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Berntsen D and Rubin DC: The centrality of event scale: A measure of integrating a trauma into one's identity and its relation to post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms. Behav Res Ther. 44:219–231. 2006.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Heir T, Piatigorsky A and Weisaeth L: Longitudinal changes in recalled perceived life threat after a natural disaster. Br J Psychiatry. 194:510–514. 2009.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Xie J, Tong Z, Guan X, Du B, Qiu H and Slutsky AS: Critical care crisis and some recommendations during the COVID-19 epidemic in China. Intensive Care Med. 46:837–840. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Gosselin E, Gelinas C, Bourgault P and Lavoie S: Intervention for patients intubated and conscious to decrease peritraumatic distress (IPIC-PTD)-Acceptability and feasibility. Sci Nurs Health Pract. 1:1–15. 2018. | |
Matalon N, Dorman-Ilan S, Hasson-Ohayon I, Hertz-Palmor N, Shani S, Basel D, Gross R, Chen W, Abramovich A, Afek A, et al: Trajectories of post-traumatic stress symptoms, anxiety, and depression in hospitalized COVID-19 patients: A one-month follow-up. J Psychosom Res. 143(110399)2021.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Zhao YQ, An YY, Tan X and Li XH: Mental health and its influencing factors among self-isolating ordinary citizens during the beginning epidemic of COVID-19. J Loss Trauma. 25:580–593. 2020. | |
Bergman HE, Kline AC, Feeny NC and Zoellner LA: Examining PTSD treatment choice among individuals with subthreshold PTSD. Behav Res Ther. 73:33–41. 2015.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
Watson D: Differentiating the mood and anxiety disorders: A quadripartite model. Annu Rev Clin Psychol. 5:221–247. 2009.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar |